Prevedic history

AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF INDIA


We will divide the agricultural history of India into four periods ,for easy understanding
of the changes that occurred over the years.

1,Prehistoric period upto BC 500

2.Historic period from BC 500 to AD 1400-1600

3.India under foreign influences From 1600-1946

4.Independent India –After 1946 till now.

Then we will see how the history is continuous from early prehistoric to the present
times.

In regional language agriculture is called Krishi.What is Krishi ? Krish means the

earth.Whatever is produced from the earth is krishi /agriculture.Incidentally Krishna also

has the same root ,meaning ,the ecstacy of the earth1.. Bhagavad Geetha2 classifies krishi

along with goraksha and vaanijya( protection of cows and trade and commerce) and

Koutilya in Arthasasthra3 also groups it under vaartha/vaarthika or economy along with

pasupaalya(animal husbandry)and trade (vaanijya).These are the jobs of the vaisya (in

chaathurvarnya) and from 3200 BC to 500 AD (From period of Krishna and Vyasa to

period of historic Chandraguptha and Koutilya it has remained the most important part of

Indian economy .(Ref .Mahabharatha V1 ,40,44 =Bhagavad Geetha XV111 ,44, and

Arthasaasthra 1,4,1)1,2,3.Amarakosa has made a distinction from krshi(agriculture) and

gleaning (unchavrithy or seelavrithy.) (Refer Amarakosa 11,9,2)4.Mahabharatha says it

includes collectively all activities related to agriculture like ploughing,supply of

seeds,implements,animals and human labour(MB 111.1,26)5.In pasupaalya,

aswasasthra,gajasasthra,gochikitsa ,koopavidhi and thadaakavidhi(establishment of wells

and ponds) are also included by Kasyapakrishisookthy.Seeragnana (knowledge of

plough) and seetagnaana(knowledge of the ploughfurrow)are connected with Janaka and

Sita in Ramayana period to Balarama in Mahabharatha period.And these are explained in

BC 500 by Koutilya(Arthasasthra 2,24)6.Nyaayamanjari Ahnika 64 ,Ahnika 4 says7:-

Phalavedaatthato gnaathwaa naagavarshasya vaarakam

Thasya poojaa prayokthavyaa bhakshyabhojyapurassara:

(Having known the year of the naaga or serpents from the phalaveda or astronomy,one

should do worship of that day,with solid food and other articles eatable.Phalaveda is the

knowledge of astronomer/astrologer in ancient India called Daivagna or

Samvatsara(Varsha/Vrishni).Krishi is from Krish (bhoo or earth)and vrish is from

seasonal rains and Krishna and Vrishni are related to Agriculture.Paraasara ,the father of

Vyaasa ,was a krishi expert,and had established a agricultural system which is very

practical and scientific using both little and greater traditions .In

Kasyapeeyakrishisookthy ,one chapter is devoted to Krishiparaasara and another to the

Ereluppaatu (the songs of the people who plough with the ox or eru.Both Tamil and

Malayalam words have same meaning for eru.Eranaadu ,Eralpaadu etc of Kerala and

Uzhavar of Tamil sangham era are having same meaning).Kasyapasilpa treats

Krishisaasthra as the first among all sciences or saasthra.Krishi,Vrikshayurveda and

upavanavinodha (the pleasure groves) together are considered in most of these ancient

works.These three are the arboriculture and horticulture of the modern times also.

Thus Krishi is economical and practical methods of agriculture,its improvements by

various means,animal husbandry,medical knowledge of plants and animals,arbori-

horticulture and forms part of arthasasthra and dharmasaasthra.Since agriculture depends

upon seasons and rainfall and ability to predict them metereologically we find it along

with jyothisha texts as varshaphala,varshalakshana,samvatsaraphala etc.Every village had

a kaniyaan/jyothsya who observed the signs for one year and brought a vishuphala on

Medam 1st ,which is the base Naaga year beginning, to predict the monsoon and its

effects for the farmer.The state provided his salary by the contributions each farmer made

in kind and special gifts from the ruler on special occasions.This was considered as the

most important service done for the economical prosperity of the nation and one such

metereological observer existed for each graama as a special officer of the crown

.Weather forcasting was their special responsibility so that crops would not be lost and

preventive measures can be taken in time.From the veda to Raamayana and

Mahabharatha and upto King Asoka in historic period we find great kings and rulers

building granaries,roads of transport of products,wells and tanks for drinking water and

irrigation,and trees planted everywhere and protection of plants ,animals,groves etc based

on this economic principle.In the Vaikhanasa Vaishnava rituals agriculture and worship

of earth(as consort of Vishnu) and her products as Aiswarya is an important aspect.The

plough agriculture (which is associated with the naaga year of Mesha ,of South India and

Lanka ,)replaced and co-existed with the older slash and burn cultivation and food-

gathering periods,and new crops and new markets and organization of village economy

and settlements and trade improved and increased with them.From period of Janaka to

Balarama and Krishna this improvement was happening in India and the ancient King

Prithu is considered as the first king to organize this activity .The codification of regional

wisdom by local people and having a common language for all the people to share this

knowledge and protect it was then devised and that is how sanskrit evolved in

India.Without a common language of communication,this enormous organization and

protection of knowledge was not possible.Hence ,several millennia before vedic period

(Sanskrit)the krishisasthra and its various aspects had been here in India.And codification

into a common language must be the last ,not the first occurrence.

Krishiparaasara verse 6 says “Rice is vitality,rice is vigour,rice is the fulfillment of all

ends(of life).God,demon and human all subsist on rice only.”During times of Parasara

and Devala all including Brahmana were engaged in agriculture.The sins of killing

microscopic and unseen living things by using agricultural instruments were put right by

giving 1/6th of produce to the king,1/20 th to the Gods and 1/30 to a learned Brahmana as

the share of social life.The levy and duty to be given was based on the amount of produce

and therefore it was not a stress for the people.

Krishiparaasara is a collective weather-wisdom of popular vernacular proverbs generated

from previous experiences of generations of ancestors.According to Das gupta origin of

such Bengali literature(Old Mithila) goes to a very remote past and that the traditional

wisdom of the agricultural people of Malabar is the possible source (Das Guptha

1935,n1,224-225 q in pp 16 History of Krishisasthra Gyula Wojtilla 2006.Harassovitz

verlag)8.The prominent Malabar school of astronomy and the provenance of such texts as

krishichakranghal,krishisamayanirnaya and varshalakshana and portions of krishigeetha

seems to prove Das guptha’s hypothesis according to Gyula Wojtilla.It is interesting that

in Indike(2.4-5,P.A.Brunt’s translation)9Arrian says that “Alone of the Indians they are

experts in prophecy ,and none save a sophist is allowed to prophecy.They prophesy only

about the the seaons of the year and any public calamity.”

This statement shows certain important things

1.Till the time of Indike ,Indians were the only people who knew the prophesy of the

monsoon winds and astronomical significance of it.

2.No one save an expert was given the post of a village or urban astronomer/astrologer

.Therefore it was a qualified Government post of metereologist available to each

grama/region.

3.They did prophecy only about the seasons of year,the yield of rain,winds and floods

and any likely natural calamity .This was for economy ,protection of crops and taking

necessary measures well in advance.

Brihathsamhitha of Varahamihira(ch 54 )10gives testimony to this.

Agriculture was not an experimental science by the time of Parasara .The experiments

were already done by previous generations,and it had become an applied practical science

and astronomy was part of it .The protection of agriculture by structures like

sethu,dams,sluices,chaanels were already in

practice.Climatology,irrigation,botany,veterinary knowledge,economic law makes it also

an experimental knowledge.

Certain terms in Kasyapeeya krishisookthy :

1.Krishikarmavid(one who is an expert in agricultural works)

2.Krishikovida(skilled in agriculture)

3.Krishipadhathikovida(skilled in the methods/manuals of agriculture)

4.Krishivichakshana(experienced/wellversed in agriculture)

These denotes the practical nature of the knowledge and how theory and practice were

based on experience and expertise.

Certain excerpts from Krishiparaasara:-

1.Sowing of seeds for transplantation is best in Ashaada.

2.Following Khanaa,it is best to sow paddy seeds within the first five days of the month

of Ashaada (May /June).It will yield much crop.

This is for Bengal (North eastern states of India from where Parasara gave instructions

and is for summer Puncha in Cherrapunchi in Assam and the puncha kols of Chera king

of Malabar ).Kasyapeeyagnaanaknada ,popular in Tirupathi,says Kosala is the best

paddyproducing area .In Ramayana (2,100,45)Kosala is an adevamathruka country where

agriculture is based on artificial irrigation assured by sufficient

rains.Arthasasthra,Rajatharangini and Bhattothpala have called Kasyapa as an expert in

agriculture and metereology.Arthasasthra in this connection mentions

Uddalakakasyapa(who had Aruni as his disciple)who had large fields according to

puranic lores and the veda.Kasyapa made it possible to cultivate in Kashmere by

regulating the rivers.The similarity between the irrigation of ancient Kashmere valley and

territory of Pallava kings is not accidental .The patronage of cultivation of paddy by all

kings –Chera and Pallava including-as a responsibility of Vaishanava service of

Vaikhanasa is a very ancient tradition.The Mahabharatha(X11.,49,56)says Parasurama

gave entire south India to Kasyapa ,after defeating and destroying the kshathriya race and

it was he who started to develop agriculture in South India( which later extended

probably to west Bengal,Assam,Kashmere valley etc through the south Indian influence

as Das Gupta suggested in the case of West Bengal)

The region which Kasyapa describes is having assured rainfall to fill up all reservoirs,is

clayey red to black soil,and the basic breed is the ongole breed and his terms like

sambaka and kalam(rice types) are still used in south India.He has described 120 plant

species of which 80 are still seen in Krishna-Godaveri delta.Even in 100 AD

transplantation of paddy as described him was practiced in this area.

Kasyapa says while describing climatology,that when it is hot season in one place ,it is

cold in another and spring in yet another and the seasons vary according to regions on

earth,and this shows that he was well aware of the seasonal changes due to earth’s

revolutions and the effects produced by it in different latitude/longitude.The

metereological year of India starts with the hot season in all parts ,as the first of

Mesha.The vishuvath.

The main product of Kashyapa is paddy.His work is divided in to the following parts.

1.Introduction to the argument for importance of agriculture in both sacred and profane

spheres of life.

2.Second part description of methods for cultivating grains.

Subdivisions of this :

1.Introduction

2.Division of land

3.construction of water reservoirs

4.construction of canals ,wells –establishing irrigation system.

5.characteristics of a good farmer and village officers

6.procuring tools,implements,other resources

7 plough worship(This is seen in the Rgveda also)

8.worship of bullocks (still done in Tamilspeaking countries)

9.Characters of good cows and bullocks

10 season of farming and determining land for rice and pulses

11 procurement of seeds

12.ploughing for sowing seeds

13.cultivating procedure for grain crops

14 cultivation of pulses and other crops.

3.The third part includes fruits ,vegetables,upavanavinoda(gardening) and forestry .All is

for the economical science and highlights the task of kings in distribution and collection

of products and taxes and its organization for benefit of all people.It also contains a few

verses about products obtained by mining.

4.The fourth part is the rule of edible and unedible things based on Dharmasasthra and

vaikhanasasmarthasoothra.

5.Offering oblations.A variety of rich cakes and sweets are described including the

jilepika.This is the culinary science of kitchen and nutrition ,considered as part of

agriculture itself.

In this juncture it is noteworthy that Parsurama who gave the Kasyapa and his progeny

the entire south India ,taught them the art of agriculture according to Krishigita in

Malayalam ,and all the requisites of agriculture are mentioned in this work as it is in

Kasyapa’s treatise.This work was popular before 17th century in Kerala.It had four

Chapters

1 Ch 1. Requisites of agriculture like cowshed,manure pits,ploughs,axes,spades ,cattle.

Nature of good agriculturists:-respect elders,free from sensuality,abstain from alcoholic

drinks,honest and accountable ,and therefore paid well

List of operations:proper fencing,manuring,dividing the fields,removing weeds,collecting

firewoods,preparing soil,collectionof seeds,bestowing water resources

2.Chap 2.Rules of ploughing,transplanting paddy seedlings.Proper day for seeding by

astronomical calculation.The enemies of agriculture like weeds and pests

enumerated.Proximity to water is a major factor which determine quality of soil.

3.Chap 3. Difference between kerala and other parts of the country.Pepper and arecanut

cultivation best on higher land and paddy best on low lands.Classification of paddy

seeds,preparation of paddy fields,treatment of seedlings,fitting of ploughshare in

plough,regulation of its position to do effective ploughing and yoking oxen.Cultivation of

coconut,jackfruit and palm trees and maintainance of garden lands ,flowers and growing

chilli.Prescriptions on deep ploughing,hoeing,making pits for trees and instructions on an

agricultural calendar.

4.Fourth chapter says ploughing at night is easier than day.Forests should never be

destroyed.Auspicious and inauspicious days for agriculture.Defects and virtues of cattle

including bulls and buffaloes.Their classification based on

tail,spine,horn,hooves,teeth,spots on skin,nose,shoulder,hair etc.This is well ahead of

Linnaeus and his morphological classification.Buffallo and ox should not be put under

same yoke since they are different in power.

Other ancient kings and people related to knowledge of agriculture and animal husbandry

are King Nala and Sage Parasurama (G.Wojtilla pp 23)11Atri,Naarada,and Mareechi (ibid

pp39) Lingapurana(1.5.40)attests Mareehi’s role in agriculture.Naarada was the cause for

the fluctuation of prices and his text on this is actually on climatology and called

Mayurachithraka (This is refered in Brihadsamhitha of Varahamihira also

.Arghakaandakaadhyaaya 4.1 Br Sam).12.Reference to Krishithanthra of Vridhaparasara

is seen in Bhattotpala’s commentary to Arthasasthra.It is interesting that

Kasyapa,Paraasara and Parasuraama give more importance to paddy and they just

mention the others.That means they are more familiar with the lowlying areas where

there is paddy fields and are concerned with it more than the other types of crops and that

was the staple diet of the regions of south India ,and was produced in

Andhra,Karnataka,Tamil nad and the present Kerala ,and the north east provinces of

Assam.Krishipaarasarya (manuscripts from Orissa)shows a area where there is no

irrigation and agriculture is based on natural resources.And paddy alone is cultivated.It

speaks of determination of the Lord of the year,determination of cloud,ascertainment of

aadhaka of water(measuring the rainfall),knowledge of rainfall in

Pausha,,Maagha,Phaalguna,Chaithra,Vaisakha,Jaishta,Aashaada,and sraavana separately

and indication or prophecy of it by such knowledge,the knowledge of rainfall according

to revolution of planets(gocharaphala)indication of drought seasons,supervision of

agriculture,rule about draught-animals,festival of cows,procession and entrance of

cows,lifting of cowdung heap,constituents of plough,ceremony of halarasaarana,rule of

preservation of seeds,procedure of sowing seeds,application of

maayika,transplantation,kattana (padavighattana )of paddy,removal of weeds,release of

water in Bhaadra,incantation for the cure of diseases of paddy,preservation of

water,taking of a handful of paddy in agrahaayana,planting of medhi in

agrahaayana,description of ceremony called pushyayaaathra in Pausa,description of

Aadhaka,storing of paddy .This is a very scientific way of teaching all the steps upto

weighing and storing the final product in the granary.Before the harvest a minor

ceremony of fixing a nala(reed/bamboo)in the field to avert strong winds,to scare away

mischievous birds and testing the crop by taking a handful of sample (sample survey) etc

are noteworthy.The final thing is the Lakshmipooja (Goddess of wealth and

economy)and consort of Vishnu ,in all agricultural operations of India.

The duties of the four varna regarding agriculture were based on their qualifications.The

Brahmins had to keep records of all transactions and laws made in regard to them and

should be totally unselfish and honest and to have every one’s faith in their

knowledge,prophecy of seasons,advices and scholarship as well as honesty. They had to

pass certain tests of scholarship and unselfishness.Unless they prove this,they were never

accepted as the Guru of the entire village for such profecying,accounting and teaching

,advicing ,lawgiving duties.The king also have to prove his honesty and dharma and

power of protection of crops and animals to get accepted as the protector.The best

agriculturist and trader had to prove their merit by improving what they were allocated

and making more profits than it yielded before.In this way everyone had to do the dharma

of the particular office.

Krishisasthra or krishisamyanirnaya ,a single manuscript at Chennai Govt Oriental

manuscript library is noteworthy ,since it is written by one Neelakandan

Namboothirippad of Kannur Mana in Ottappalam ,Malabar 1926-27.The kol puncha of

Palghat district being his territory of agricultural knowledge.Along river Nila ,in the

graamakshethra of Panniyur , he gives names like naalikera(cocos

nucifera)naagalatha(piper betel),pooga(betelnut tree) or areca catechu,Tamboola(piper

betel)etc.Both slash and burn and irrigated agriculture are described by him.Apart from

the other usual topics he also mentions the yoga for making friends( co-operation of

friends)and enemies(reasons for quarrel between them )also which means the co-

operative efforts were recognized in kol puncha fields even before any of our

developmental programmes have started.And anyone who knows the paddy cultivation

on kol puncha fields will also know that it can be done only by co-operative efforts and

by organized skills of an entire population and their lawgivers.Therefore ,the relation of

Kasyapa,Parasurama,and Pallava dynasties and other ancient agriculturists related to

puncha and paddy cultivating areas also speaks of the combined effort of an organized

people as well.Keralakrishi,a palmleaf manuscript is an account of agriculture of

Malabar,and was taught in Malabar in village schools till independence. .It is in old

Malayalam .It also describes the metereological forecasts ,astronomical relations etc ,the

utmost care for the land for cultivation which is fenced ,richly manured,ploughed not less

than six times .Three kinds of paddy cultivation mentioned in it are

1.Dry seed cultivation

2.Sprouted cultivation

3.Transplanted cultivation

The agricultural year begins on the first of Medam(vishu)in April-May,and the village

astrologer(Kaniyaana)fix an auspicious day for turning of the first sod of the season .The

harvest of the second crop is in Makara (January.February).

Khanaar –bocan,attributed to Khaana (or Kona) daughter of Varahamihira is a Bengali

text.It says:-The year in which it rains on the 9th day of the fullmoon in month of

Ashaada ,the heron will walk on the very bed of the sea.If it drizzles on that day,it will be

followed by heavy rains throughout the year to the extent of making fish inhabit even the

top of hills.If it rains now and then,there will be rich harvest,and if the sun sets under a

clear cloudless horizon ,the crops will not grow at all.(This is the ashaadayoga described

by her father Varahamihira in his Varaahisamhitha).

A collection of sayings of Daka(who lived in Assam in Lehidandhara village in 9th

century according to several authors)is available in Assamese,Bengali Maithili and

Rajasthani languages.The rajasthani tradition say that he was a Brahmin contemporary of

king Pareekshith of Mahabharatha and husband of Savithry ,daughter of Dhanwanthari

of Kaasi branch. The sayings include :-

1.If it rains in the month of Phalguna,urid is spoilt.If in month of Chaithra,lemons.If in

asterism of krithika,the toddy palms,and in that of swathi beans ,sesamum,saith,Daak ,the

Gowaala(Gopaala).”(These are the yogas mentioned in Brihadsamhitha too)

2.If the sky is thickly clouded in the entire month of Poush,but is cloudless in the bright

half of chaithra,the grain will sell cheaper than a maund for one roopa(silver).

3.Clouds flying in the morning and cold winds blowing in the evening are sure signs of a

famine.

4.If Mrigasira(June)is hot,Rohini(Beginning of June)rains,Ardra (middle of June)gives a

few drops,rice will be so plentiful that even dogs will turn up their noses at it.

These type of year round observation of the metereological nature is described and dealt

with in 5th century AD by Varahamihira and was continued by astronomers in Kerala

upto 15th century and the observations of these scientists were communicated to the

villages and the farmers and all people by the village kaniyaan who himself was

observing his region for any signs .And this will be communicated in Vishu ,Onam and

other important seasonal festivals .Varahamihira also describes summer crops(1X

43),autumnal crops(V ,27) and vernal crops (XXV11 ,I).This corresponds to the

puncha,virippu and mundakan of Kerala.Vaikhaanasaagama or Mareechisamhitha or

Vimaanaachanaakalpa( procedure of the image cult of temples) describes the building of

temples and the temple cult before 8th century AD and it describes agriculture in detail

.The association of temple cult and agriculture is welldocumented in Indian

history.Especially the rights associated with it for the merchant classes is documented

well in South Indian epigraphy and in literature survey related to socioeconomic and

political changes.

Pairu Madava vivaranamu(Telugu text) of unknown author of antiquity suggests that they

knew how to make small openings of channels into the fields(the madava/ mada in

Malayalam) for growing crops.Aaruni,disciple of Udhalaka lied down in one of such

openings to prevent water entering into his Guru’s farm and destroying it during a flood

time.(Veda/Upanishadic times)

Viswavallabha in Sanskrit by Chakrapaani (1540-1597) during Maharana Prathapasimha

,gives description of ground water ,its lucky combination in a desert ,surface indication of

groundwater in wetlands,ordinary land/mountains,rocks as indicators of ground

water.Soil and vegetation also are surface indicators of ground water.

It describes water reservoir construction,examination and suitability of ground for

cultivation,soil,propagation ,trees near residence,plantation inside fort,plantations,water

management,protection and care of crops,nourishment ,diseases,treatment,(related to

kapha,vaatha and pitha and their imbalance)indigestion caused by excess water,and

food(manure)overmedication,insectrelated diseases,treatment of pruned trees,frost

burns,fire burns,lightening,wind,friction,transplantation,trees ruined by animals,contact

with unhealthy trees,lapses in modes of treatment,discharge,and contrariety regarding

seasons.

It also describes Botanical wonders :-wonders of seeds,of trees,with negative results,of

flowers,fruits (seedless fruits)naturally coloured cotton ,improving quality of produce.

In Ramayana we find Prince Bharatha visiting an udyana which grows natural red cotton

plant .

Agnipurana in chapter 121 describes the Goshtayathra( festival of

cow),krishikarmasamaacharana(Beginning of the agricultural

operations),beejaavaapana(sowing the

seed),dhaanyacheda(Harvesting),dhaaanyapravesha (Bringing in paddy-What we call

illam nira,vallam nira ,pathaayam nira),dhaanyanishkramana (Taking out paddy for use

)etc which are still done with pomp and ceremony in south India ,and in

Kerala..Amarkosa around 6th century AD book 2 ch 9,verses 6-77 gives agricultural

operations ,implements and products.The husking of corn described is exactly like the

modern method.The ardha-plough with 4 parts is also described.Ch 42 (section 41)of

Arthasasthra seethaadhyakshaprakarana is a comprehensive discussion of supervising

procedures like ploughing,sowing,irrigation,storage of grains and involvement of several

people on a co-operative basis. The granary of Mohenjo Daro in this context shows the

antiquity of agricultural procedures and its scientific knowledge in ancient

India.Kalithokai (4th -6th century)and Thirukkural (5-6th century)also contain some

references to agriculture.Thiruvalluvar speaks of it in chapter on economy(Artha).Devala

,an ancient rishi ,predecessor to Vrahamihira speaks of ploughing and sowing

.Naalatinaanooru(400 quartets)an anthology in Tamil gives it under subheading

Porul(wealth/Arthasasthra).Perumpaanaattupadai (100 BC – AD 200)describes a vivid

description of village life with basic agricultural operations.

Some of the literary sources on prehistoric knowledge of Indian agriculture are :

1.Banerji .S.C.Krishiparasara 13.Abook on agriculture .Bengal oriental research institute

vol 36.1 &2.1955.1-32

2.Chakravarthy .C.14Asokavana and itssignificance .Indological journal Vol 3(1965)57-60

3.Choudhary .K.A15Archeological plant remains from pre-and protohistoric periods as a

source of history of sciences.Indian J of Hisory of sciences vol 4No:1 and 2.(1969)5-10.

4.Mehta .K.L.16Sesame in India .(1970) From 3600 BC .(Indus valley period) .

The remains of Coriza sativam from archeologicval sites of Kaalibanghan,granary in

Mohenjo daro,wheat and barley remains from Mohenjo daro,rice and millets from

Samkali excavation at Ahar ,knowledge of asoka (sarca indica )and orchards(upavana)for

pleasure garden from Ramayana,knowledge of several varieties of plants in

Vedas(Aswatha,khadira,soma,palaasa,nyagrodha,pippali,bilwa,udumbara,and

apamarga)and the botanical naming of them in Sanskrit for identification,the use of the

word Thailika (the oil-pressing)and knowledge of sesame oil from 3600 BC,jujube

,mustard and masura from1 500 BC,mudga (from 1500 BC),antiquity of tree worship

seen in the Indus valley seals,are all discussed in these texts.The names of the varieties of

rice in Krishigeetha,a Malayalam manuscript gives the following names for the regions of

Kerala :-

Thillunaadu( present Mangalapuram/Kannnur)

Kolanaadu(Present Calicut and Ernakulam old palghat, Trichur and Calicut as malayaam

district)

Edanaadu (Ernakulam , parts of Trichur )

Kuttanadu(Alleppey)

Venad(Thiruvananthapuram)

Paradesam(Kanyakumari,Nagarkovil)

And in this classification Kol /Kolathiri area is the kol puncha area extending from

Trichur district and along the Nila mouth upto Palghat .On either side of it were the

pallava nadu and the eranaadu,kolathiri nadu ,veliyam and the sangham velar naadu

described in the sangham literature .The knowledge of Kurinchi(strobilanthus)and

marutham(the kol fields)and naithal(sea shores) mullai(level lands)and hills and its

different characters and plants and animals and huan races were known to Indians from

antiquity.Thus the history of Indian races from the foodgathering and wandering tribes to

food-producing people extends to prehistoric antiquity and the principles of biology and

geography and climate of the region where they lived made this possible by constant

observation and experiments and experiences of loss and gain related to certain

phenomena which later on evolved to a predictive and applied science .Domestication of

plants and animals had happened during the cavedwelling period itself and the oldest

caves are several million years old(Bimbektha etc).The excavation of Harappa,Indus

valley and Mehrgarh has given us enough eveidence for our agricultural knowledge,its

use,its trade and commerce with other people(Sumerian,Assyrian,Egyptian,Chinese,and

later on with Jews and Greeks and Romans and the British )for a very prolonged period

without interruption in basic pattern ,though the political administration changed from

time to time,as it does in present day politics too.The history of agriculture survives even

today in India and will survive because it is the economic backbone of this country and

for our economical and social survival co-operative management of this basic activity is a

must .

Vedic Indian agriculture based on hymns of the samhitha portion of Rg17,Yajur18,saama
19and Atharvaveda20:-

1 Types of land :- Land rich with milk and wet with honey and ghee (Rg 1.18.5.5.)

The Sindhudesa is rich in horses ,chariots,clothes,gold ornaments wellmade,rich in

food,wool,abundant in silama plant( fibreyielding for making ropes to be tied to ploughs)
.
Rg X 6.7.8

There are tracts in ghats or hillsides,open plains,stonestrewn lands ,slopes and undulating

countrysides ,flat country with green pasture,low countries with great fertility,cultivated

lands with homesteads and cows.( Y 227.29 and 245).From these one can select good and

bad lands .the surface features are sandy,clayey soils,stony soil,hilly ,and mountain slopes

and lands yielding both cultivated crops and wild forest produce (Y 245).

2.Rain and water sources:-

Most of the rishis pray for good water supply.”Send to us for our nourishment and

prosperity the quick falling wonderful abundant water in the centre of clouds ,effecting of

itself much good”(R 1.21.3.10)..Armed with thunderbolt ,I created all these pellucid

waters flowing for the good of man.(R 1.23.1.8).Floods of land ,cleave the cloud,grand us

the power of beneficient waters from their abode.(Y 132.6).O,waters,become one with

these rice,just as a maiden in season with her man.(Athar .476.29).Prayers against too

much rain also is seen.”Parjanya,May the high and low places be made level.Thou hast

rained.Now check the rains.”(R 6.11.7.10)
.
3.Irrigation and river water:- Knowledge of dam/bund construction and laying out canals

for irrigation was known to vedic sages.Even if their dams /bunds were rough and

primitive made of a pile of boulders and brushwood ,reeds and wattle (this is the same

method used in Punnayurkulam farmers still ,every year to build their temporary bunds

is significant for its continuity and efficacy) they were effective merely for diverting a

portion of the floodwater into canals ,considerable technical knowledge and skill and co

-operative farming methods should have existed is to be understood.To construct a

dam/canal/bund etc more than one skilled craft or industry must be known and several

people have to be co-operatively involved for common benefit.Ribhus,the dexterous

handed craftsmen rendered the fields fertile ,they lead forth the rivers ,and plants sprang

upon even on wastelands and water spread over two places (R 4.4.1.7).This refers to

irrigation and reclamation of wastelands to fertile fields .

May the 7th stream the Saraswathy,the mother of Sindhu,and those rivers that flow
copious and fertilizing ,bestowing abundance of food and nourishing the people by their
waters come at once ,together.(R 7.3.3.6).May the agriculturists produce plenty for us
,like the floods that flow after the rains,through a thousand channels and like never-
failing springs let our grains increase.(R 3.3.7.6).One tribe obstructing a water source and
a king restoring its flow for fertility is mentioned.Yajurveda says “Grant us water in
torrents,cut the bonds around the waters and set them free.When the floods descend upon
earth,parjanya darkens even the bright sky(Y 132.1.2) is also a meterological

observation.Just as the contents of the treasure house are set free for the yagna,by liberal
donors,even so,the rains have been set free from their abode in heaven by Parjanya(Y
132.3).The rivers were channelised to a common receptacle as reservoir of water.”I want to the wide auspicious Vipaasha river to flow together to a common receptacle”(R
3.3.4.4).Indra dry our channels when he slew Ahi,the blocker up of the rivers.(R
3.3.4.6).When he cut Ahi to pieces with his thunderbolt ,destroyed the surrounding
obstructions (of the water/of rain )whence the water proceed in the direction they
desire.(R 3.3.4.7).Rivers corroders of banks ,lke armies destructive of their foes(R
4.2.9.7)speaks of soil erosion of banks by flowing rivers.It also speaks of control of
erosion by embankments.Maruths,come along,the beautifully ambanked rivers ,with
unobstructed progress(R 1.8.3.11).Maruths also were concerned with well irrigation.The
maruths brought a well for Gothama(R 1.14.1.11).As a thirsty man or ox hastens to a well
(R 1.19.4.2) Our praises converge towards you ,like herds to a well(R 10.2.9.4).Tie ropes
tightly to the waterpots,let us draw water from the unfailing well.Set up cattle
troughs,bind straps to it,let us pour out water from the well which is not easily
exhausted.(R 10.9.2.5).As the Maruths are always in groups or gana (gana also means a
republic or a community on co-operative basis) the vaisya with occupation of
agriculture,cattle protection and trade and commerce and economy and happiness and
well being of entire nation was responsible for all such activities .Well built wells with
parapets ,and arrangement for taking baths ,and for baling out water for irrigation,is
mentioned by tieing the fixtures,leather or fibre straps ,etc .Mhote buckets were in use.In
North India simple Mhote buckets and in South India more complicated but better
technology of Kapiles were used from vedic times according to A.K.Yagnanarayana Iyer 21(Director of agriculture and chairman of policy committee of agriculture )in his work
Agriculture and allied arts in Vedic India .Mud wells as holes in the ground ,with no
parapet walls also were in use.They were called Kutcha wells and were dangerous to
cattle and men .Therefore the prayer,”Let not ,Pushan,our cattle perish ,let them not be
injured,let them not be hurt by falling into a well”(R 6.5.5.7).Yajurveda Anuvaka 227
says that rivers,lakes ,tanks,ponds ,pools ,stagnant water bodies ,wells ,sea water were
water resources and worships the spirits dwelling in all of these water bodies for
prosperity of human race.

4.Layout of fields:-

Wide fields ,vast treasures ,spacious pastures,has Indra bestowed on his friends(R
3.3.2.15).Like a field measured by a rod(R 1.16.5.5)shows the knowledge of
measurement and finding out the area of the field was known.The standard lengths and
geographical measurements were standardized by a kol (used by the architects of
yore).The term Kol and Kola(Gola)measurements of the geographers and mapmaking or
cartography were known.The boundaries of fields as well as the villages /empires were
decided upon by this measures. I erected a safe fence as a protection(Y 13.3)shows such
a boundary for a rishi’s fields.Yajurveda also speaks of horses breaking through the
fences (Y 383.9).Fields abutted on roads which traversed the countryside.The drawbacks
of land with fields scattered and under different owners,with no approach roads or
pathways for carrying the produce and manure from and to the fields,except by the

sufferance of the neighbour and impossible when there is a crop in the land were well
realized .They knew the importance of co-operative large farms under collective
ownership and the need for approach roads .”We worship Thee,for the pleasant fields and
for the good roads and for the riches.”.(R 1.15.4.2).We solicit a spacious road for our
servants ,a spacious road for our cattle,and for our chariots/carts.(R 8.7.9.13).There were
roadside rests for carriers of burden.It was a form of public and individual charity.As one
carrying a load of bamboos on his head places it on a high load-easing platform and seeks
a little relief(Y 354.8) shows their existence.This existed until preindependent days in
India and every one constructed such structures,wells,and public tanks etc for common
use as charity.A.K.Yagnanarayana Iyer sites an example from Mysore state ,under cool
shadow trees a group of fixtures eructed which comprise of a shoulder high platform of
stone over a couple of tall stone slabs.Onto this a man can unburden his load without any
ones assistance.Another rectangular overhead water cistern of stone is cleaned and filled
with fresh drinking water every morning.The cistern has a small hole at bottom closed by
a wooden plug which the traveler can unplug ,drink water and then push back the plug
and close the hole.A large stone bench also will be there to sit or lie down and take
rest.This may seem an oldfashioned charity.Yes.It is as old as the veda itself.It shows the
concern of the public for the wellbeing of all.It is the real good samaritan’s job without
expecting any thing in return for the charity provided.My grandmothers used to do this
sort of charity at home in Nalapat.At present no one does any nishkaamakarma ,for
anyone .Even charity work is for getting something in return.We are loosing our values
and becoming more and more selfish and individualistic.(like tax evasion,fame etc ).
Rgveda says about a good field in the hands of a bad cultivator is a bad field.(Like a
pleasant field given to a beggar .R 10.3.4.6).That is the modern socialistic concept that a
field should be possessed only by one who can put it to full and proper use .So,the
Rgvedic people were most ancient but were more modern in their socialistic outlook than
any of the modern intellectuals.A barren field is compared to a bald head.”O,Indra,These
three places do thou cause them to grow.My father’s bald head,his barren field,and my
body.This field which is my father’s,and this my body ,and the head of my father do
Thou make them bear a crop.”(R 8.9.11.6.5).Atharvaveda say “To grow hair ,Jamadagni
(father of Parasurama)has brought this herb.May it grow hair on your head,thick and
straight like the reeds.(Ath 310).The herbal medicinal knowledge is thus attributed to
Jamadagni,the father of the founder of Kerala .Apala,daughter of Athri restored the
resplendent beauty by Indra,by passing her through his chariot,the chariot wheels ,a hole
in the yoke of his chariot and this ritual is enacted in the marriage ritual of Brahmins.The
yoke is placed over the head of the bride ,resting on a ring of Darbha grass,with utterings
of manthra as a fertility and rejuvenation rite.The fertile field or Kshethra,a fertile
woman and a hairy head are equated with the earth bearing oushadi and vanaspathy for
sustenance of the species and races.

5.Seasons:-

Crops and seasons and their knowledge go together.Only highly skilled agriculturalists
can relate the two and for this prolonged ,even millennia of experience is needed for
generations of people.Therefore ,what the vedic rishi says about the seasons and crops is

to be cognized by the fact that he was very well aware of the monsoon
winds,rains,geographical peculiarities of India and its products and agricultural practices
for a long period.And it cannot be imported from any other geographical area ,and the
view that vedic Aryans came to India from somewhere else is not a feasible
argument.They were skilled in agricultural knowledge and meterological factors of the
subcontinent by prolonged experience .The days of the year fell into 94 divisions and the
growth of crops noticed presumably through different sections of the period.Vishnu
causes by his gyration the 94 periodical revolutions (R 1.21.16.6) and it is this division
of the year which is connected to seasons and crop production.Wilson has interpreted this
as 1 yr,2,solstices,5 seasons,12 months,24 paksha,30 days,8 prahara,and 12 raasi
altogether making 94.But from Varahamihira’s panchasidhanthika and his Brihsdvarahi
samhitha gives another plausible explanation is related to the ayanamsa.The degrees in a
circle is 360 days but the days in a Paithamaha panchavarsheeya yuga is 366 /per
year.There is 6 days difference between the two.If we divide these with 94 which is the
periodical revolutions decided upon by Vishnu’s gyrations,we get 180 and 183 with a
difference of 3 days.Varahamihira takes this and says that during Paithamahasidhantha
the ayana were in Aslesha and Dhanishta(Dakshinayana and utharayana)but during his
time it is taken at the beginning of Karka(cancer)as Punarvasu and at beginning of
Makara as Uthrada star.The difference between aslesha and punarvasu is 3 days and
between uthrada and dhanishta also is 3 stars.Thus a + - of 3 days for ayana difference is
to be accounted for.Not more than that .This is the law of gyration spoken of in the Veda
.The natural is in Aslesha and Dhanishta (prakrithy)and the artificial is in punarvasu-
uthrashada(vikrithy)according to Varahamihira.That is during olden days 120 and during
his times 90 days is taken for calculation .(90 X 4 =360, & 120 X 3 =360 +/- 3 being
common to both)

Punarvasu 80 to 93 .20 degree
Pousham 93.20 to 106.40 degree
Aslesham 106.40 to 120 degree

He says from Makara to the northern direction ,and then from Mesha onwards the
southwest direction starts and is good and fertile for all plants and trees .The winds are in
the southwest direction at that period.The southern course from Karkitaka ,after Thulaam
is the time of northeastern winds and direction.Since these are still experienced in the
same way ,the vedic rishi was aware of the seasons and the monsoon winds.

May the grains ripen through nights and days ,and paksha of 15 days,months of 30 days
and the year comprising the seasons in their regular order and bring happiness(Y
366).The role of soma/moon is expressed as the excilarating effused juice ,the fifteenfold
soma(R 10.2.11.2)and soma plant grew in 15 days of the bright half and wilted in the
dark half.Vasanthaa is delightful and fit for enjoyment .Greeshma is abode of
joy.Varsha,sarath and sisira are charming and give intense pleasure.(Saama kanda 63.Hy

2).Knowledge of lunisolar calendar and the intercalary month was known .Rgveda says
“He,Varuna knows the 12 months and their productions and that which is supplementary

engendered(R 1.6.2.7).Varuna being the lord of the sea,and of water bodies ,it also
denotes the adjustment of trade and commerce and agriculture and the avocation of life to
peculiarities of different parts of the year.

Comparison of saka and Malayalam months named after the stars and star clusters of the
zodiac respectively and the conjunction of them with seasons of India .

Pousha Makara Sisira Winter solstice
utharaayanam
Maagha Kumbha
Phalguna Meena Vasantha
Chaithra Mesha Vernal equinox vishuvam
Vaisakha Rishabha Greeshma
Jyeshta Mithuna
Ashada Karkataka Varsha Dakshinaayana
Summer solstice
Sravana Simha
Bhadrapada Kanya Sarath
Aswina Thulaa Vishuvam Autumnal equinox
Karthika Vrischika Hemantha
Margasira Dhanu


The Indian monsoon rain and the varsha season :-

Rain was a source of genuine enjoyment for people.Rain meant food for all in the coming
seasons.Sustenance of animals ,birds and man by ample annam (food).Parjanya ,the rain
God brings food .Frogs bring and harbingour the coming of rainy season.They awaken as
if musicians in a concert season.”When the waters of the sky fall upon them they
,sleeping in the lake like a dry waterskin ,rise together ,and their croaking is like
bellowing of cows when joined by their calves(R 7.6.14.2).The parjanya has sent rain
upon them ,thirsty and longing ,then one frog meets another ,croaking his
congratulations as a child calls to its father with inarticulate ejaculations.(R 7.6.14.3).One
of these congratulates the other ,as they are both delighting in the forthcoming rain.The
speckled frog leaping up repeatedly when moistened by the shower ,join greetings with

the green one (R 4).One has bellowing of a cow,another the bleating of a goat,one of
them speckled and another green designated by a common appellation .They are various
coloured and croaking ,show themselves in numerous places (ibid 6).Like Brahmins at
the soma libations ,at the Athirathra sacrifice,you are now croaking around the
replenished lake throughout night for on that day of the year ,you frogs are everywhere
about when it is the setting in of the rain(ibid 7).May the cow-toned,speckled,green and
other ones grant us riches(ibid 10).

6.Ploughs and ploughing:-

There are three hymns addressed to the kshethrapathy(ruler of the kshethra/or the
field/land).
With the master of the field,our friend,we triumph .May he bestow upon us cattle
,horses,nourishment,for by such gifts he makes us happy.

Lord of the field,bestow upon us sweet abundant water,as milchcow yields milk,droping
like honey ,bland as butter.May lords of water make us happy .

May the herbs of fields be sweet for us ,may the heaven’s waters ,the firmament,be kind
to us.May the lord of the field be gracious to us.Let us ,undeterred by foes ,have recourse
to him.

Hymns addressed to shuna and shunashira are three in number.(Shuna is dogstar as well
as the God of ceremony of ploughing).

May my oxen draw happily.The men labour with happiness.The plough furrow
happily.May the truce bind happily and wield the goad happily.
Shuna and shira be pleased by our praise.And consequently sprinkle the earth with the
water you have created in the heavens.

May the ploughshares break up our land happily.May the plough go happily with the
oxen.May parjanya water the earth with sweet showers happily.Grant shuna and
shira,prosperity to us (R 4 .5.12.1-8)

Chandogya Upanishad speaks of Bakadalbya22 observing the binary star of the dogstar
Sunaka for foretelling rains and in India this was a very important event right from vedic
(Sirius)times because it also foretells the monsoon and the trade searoutes depended on it.
There is a hymn to sita(the plough channel) as well.Auspicious Sita,be present,we glorify
thee.That thou mayst be propitious to us.That thou mayst yield us abundant food.May
Indra take hold of Sita.May pushan guide her.May she ,wellstored with water ,yield it as
milk year after year.These rgvedic hymns show how the agriculture and its rites yielded
food year after year and made the country selfsufficient in food .

Even now we have a ploughing ceremony before each season of agriculture.In Mysore it
is called Honneru(ponneru)or the golden plough/golden oxen..This word is pregnant with
meaning of wealth and of Sri,the consort of Vishnu as golden(suvarna)Sita.The day and
hour is fixed by the village astrologer .The headman go to the field ,hold the
plough ,plough a few furrows ,villagers in a prayerful mood ,pooja and prayers offered
begins the general ploughing after this.this was what was done by Janaka in Mithila when
he got Sita ,from the sita.And in Mahabhartha it was Balarama who was the expert
ploughman.(Kari and kalappa are names for plough in Malayalam.)

The vedic plough was an implement fashioned with the eye of artistic taste and

beauty.The owners were proud of it.It had ornamental handles.In old agricultural families
it is worshipped as the weapon of riches and pride.The plough handle,the seed
drillhandle,the seed bowl,the sickle handles,parts of carts,cattle mangers,carved to
resemble limb or head of animals –leg of lion,face of sheep,bull,man ,parrot just with
floral designs were used.Though the plough handle was ornamental ,the business end was
serviceable and thus it served a double purpose.Yajurveda(189.13-20)describes the entire
process of ploughing as well as the co-operative team spirit of the people in the operation
of ploughing large fields .It follows like this:-“Our auspicious boughs with ornamental
handles ,and sharppointed shares,cleave the ground to the happiness of the cows,sheep
and the wellgrown maidens.Ploughmen plough round and round ,plough burrows become
closer and closer,concentrically and of good depth.They work in teams with delight in
heart for good ploughing.May the ploughshare plough round and round ,happy with the
prospect of heavy crops,May the rain God grant us plenty of milk and honey.Fit up the
ploughs,yoke them close to each other.May Indra press the plough deep into the soil.May
the sharppointed share cleave the soil and push the ploughed earth on both sides of the
furrows.”

The plough must be having the same shape and type as the plough used in Indian villages
today,with a V-shaped bottom that push the soil on both sides of the furrow .”As the
husbandman ploughs the earth repeatedly for barley “(R 1.5.6.15) is a similie used by the
veda.This shows the effort needed for ploughing.But the effort was forgotten by the
expectation of a crop and the songs associated with the team work.This is called
Erupaattu in Era(u)naadu eru being the pair of oxen for ploughing. Punnayurkulam and
south Malabar were part of Erunaadu,the land of oxen,and the ploughmen or
agriculturists from time immemorial.

The erupaattu and good animal husbandry and goraksha went together in vedic India as
proven by the Rgvedic hymn:-“Plough bullocks to be treated gently ,not to be goaded or
hurt,coaxed by good words and bucolic music.Wield the goad happily as a ploughman
repeatedly drawing his furrows praising and addressing his oxen(R 8 .3.8.19).Now,we
find people lashing and using sharp pointed goads to hurt animals and using vulgar
abusing language in racy vernacular which is gainst animal psychology.It is in fact
against human psychology as well.Using such methods of hurt and abuse no one can
make good work or get happiness either from animals or from human beings is a fact.
“O.bulls,who are strong to pull with the yoke on your shoulder”(Y 22.7)shows the
strength needed for the oxen to do the job.For success all the oxen,humans and
instruments had to be strong .”May the plough bullocks,may the ploughmen,may the
plough ropes be all victorious ,may the whip be lifted victoriously (Athar 88.6).Were
horses used in vedic India for ploughing? For blak cotton soil in hot weather which
required heavy ploughs which can be pulled by 3 to 4 pairs of bullocks it was better to
use a horse to plough .So the horsepower as unit was used in such black cotton
soil.Rgveda says:- Set up the cattle troughs,bind the straps to it,let us bale out water from
the well which is not easily exhausted,satisfy the horses,accomplish the good work of
ploughing”(R X .9.2.3,5,7).Horses were used for riding,for chariots and carts and as
warhorse also.For ploughing it was used rarely ,only in special cases when it was black

cotton soil and the weather was too hot.These factors show agriculture was of a very high
standard and done with scientific knowledge of what they were doing,and not
mechanically as transferred knowledge from somewhere else.Lot of thinking and
experience of geographic and soil conditions had given this scientific outlook and
methods of agricultural development.”Indra,I ask your help in ploughing for increase of
grain”(Y 16.10).May the lowlying lands so ploughed and rich with milk and wet with
honey and ghee come back to us much fertilized.(Y 189.20).From this I wonder whether
the yajurvedic rishi has experienced the loss of the low lying wetlands (by floods and by
sea )and was praying for its reclamation !Was it such reclamation the vedic sage
Parasurama did with his axe which could make a plough from wood ?”The ploughshare
furrowing the field provides food for the ploughman(R X 10.5.7) and giving annam for
an entire population by reclamation of fertile wetlands is indeed a great deed.

7.Seeds and sowing.

The barley (millets)has to be sown in fields properly prepared by the plough(R
1.17.2.21).May the seeds be viable.May the rains be plentiful.May the grains ripen
through nights and day,paksha of 15 days,30 days,and the year comprising seasons in
regular order of succession(Y 366).Sow the seeds.May the earheads be many and heavy
for the sickles to cut and pile in heaps.May these auspicious ploughs bring us wealth in
cows,sheep,chariots,wellnourished and strong women.(Ath 88.1.7).Harness the ploughs
,fit on the yokes,now that the womb of earth is ready to sow the seeds therein.Our praise
to Indra,May there be abundant food,May grains fall ripe towards the sickle.(R X.9.2.3)

We can find the synthesis of the strength of faith in the divine help and prayer,with the
confidence of scientific knowledge of every step in agricultural science and willpower to
do karma or action for a better future and for sustenance of the races of each and every
creation in vedic hymns.

8.Rotation of crops.

As the growers of barley often cut the barley ,separating it in due order,(R X 11.3.2) says
the rishi.About this Webster makes a comment that the rishi knew rotation of crops or
succession of crops which is an important advancement in knowledge of agriculture.

9.What were the crops cultivated by vedic Indian?

Barley,wheat,rice and other grains,pulses and fruits and vegetables of different
varieties,sugarcane,gingelli and grapes are mentioned in the veda.Clothing,weaving of
garments are mentioned indicating they grew cotton.Various steps in
sowing,harvesting,winnowing,storing and preparation and processing are mentioned for
the grains.(R 1.5.6.15;1.17.2.21 ,Y 109.2.Y 122.1 mention barley ).

The barley grain heaps grow and the stores increase .Oh,Barley grains,increase even
more,inexhaustible as the sea (Ath 315.152).Winnowing speech as men winnow barley

with a sieve (R X 6.3.2) is a similie which I have heard in my infancy.My great grand
uncle used to say,one should not put saraswathy(vaak)in the winds without control.The
sieve to winnow grains and speech is to control by viveka what is good and
bad.Assembled cattle feed on barley(R X 2.11.8).We have prepared the parched grain and
curds for Thee ,fried barley for Thee,also cakes and butter (R 3.4.14.7).Grains of parched
barley steeped in ghee(R 1.4.5.2)vegetable cakes of fried meals,do Thou be
substantial,wholesome and invigorating and body ,do Thou grow fat with boiled milk and
boiled barley (R 1.24 .8.8.and 9)indicate not only the food habits but also the scientific
knowledge about nutritional requirements for healthy body and growth of nervous system
for cognition,learning and wisdom.

I seek barley and rice grain.Do you eat barley and rice ?You are swallowing the grains as
if a python is swallowing the sheep.(Athar 313.2)says a rishi to his companion who is
probably too gluttonous.

Praana and apaana are rice and barley.Praana in barley and apaana in rice(Athar 467.13).
One supply the deficiency of the other.They have to be supplemented with each other.

May we escape poverty by means of cattle and escape hunger by means of barley(R
X.4.2.10)Cattle was for sale and for money as barter system prevailed and was sign of
one’s wealth and barley was for food especially in areas which lack monsoon rains and in
times of famines to prevent hunger and it was also used for cattle food.

Yajurveda mentions several grains and pulses (Y 244)and it mentions wheat also.The
hymn is as follows:-“Through yagna may I secure
happiness,riches,love,affection,diligence in ploughing,success against all
enemies,food,milk,truth,agriculture,rain,gold,wealth,rice,barley,blackgrams,greengrams,
wheat,thuvergram,Bengal gram,navara grains,shamai(chaama)sirumani rice,and orchard
crops.”

O,Agni,who consumest the flesh,the black goat is your share,lead is said to be your
wealth,and ground blackgram is your offering.(Athar 475.53).These are articles used by
ancestral worshippers.

Both the blackseeded and white seeded varieties of gingilly were grown for oil.The seeds
were pressed for oil and the one who does this was known as Thailika.It was used for
lighting lamps,for anointing body and for cooking.

Taste ghee and oil of the gingili(Atha 8.2).I offer dried sugarcane,white gingili,reeds and
bamboos(Athar 475.53.54)These are articles used by Indra as fuel..Sugarcane was
crushed to make gur.Jaggery was made from sugarcane.The dried sugarcane or refuse
(bargasse) or the refuse of the crushed sugarcane is still used as fuel in India.Sugarcane is
sometimes a metaphor for love and affection with which one binds another.The madhura
or sweet taste is the reason for this metaphor.I have tied you round with the sugarcane
stems in order to avoid dislike (Atha 34).Sugarcane is the weapon for kaamadeva and

for the devi alike.

Fruits,flowers,vegetables and roots and medicinal herbs were also
cultivated.”O.plants,who yield flowers,fruits,edible roots,gladden him with your
produce”(Y 177.12).Rudra,nourished by vegetables ,bestowed by Thee ,May I live a 100
winters(R 2.4.1.20 is a prayer for longevity,which is a sign of reduced mortality rate and
health of community.May the waters ,crops,plants,creepers,favour us.(Y 87.4).Give us
medicinal herbs for cows,horses,men,sheep and goats (Y 112.1)shows the people were
concerned not only with human health but also health of the domestic animals and
veterinary medicine was known too.the hymn”May I be liberated from death like an
Urvaaruka from its stalk”(Mritunjaya manthra R 6.4.5.12)shows the awareness of
cucumber,bottlegourd and other types of gourds too which were used for food as well as
for musical and surgical instruments.Atharvaveda in a humourous tone says”He is like an
empty bottlegourd”(Ath 720,1.4)meaning he is devoid of substance of brain in his skull.
The method of pruning grapes and fermenting art to make juice of wine was practiced in
vedic India.Rgveda says:’’Cut off the foe like an old pruner cuts off the protruding
branches of the creepers”(R 8.5.10.6).Potations of soma contained in Thy interior ,for
exhilaration,like the ebriety caused by the wine (R 8.1.2.12)shows they knew the action
of wine as well as the action of certain medicines used for anaesthetics.North west India
,especially Punjab was the center of cultivation of grapes for 4000 years according to De
Condelle.Wilson translates sura as wine .

Though cotton is not mentioned in Rgveda strands of thread,warp,woof,weaving etc are
mentioned.A.N.Gulati (Microscopist Technological lab Bombay .Indian farming .March
1949)23observes that “According to Marshall cotton and woolen clothes were used by
preAryan inhabitants of Indus valley over 5000 years ago”.Gulati and Turner (J of textile
institute Manchester)24analysed a piece of cotton cloth sticking to a silver vase excavated
from MohenjaDaro and found it to be cotton similar to a coarse type used even today in
India.Mackay(Indian civilization pp 138)25 is of opinion that the numerous spindles and
spindle whorls found at Mohenjo Daro ,although indicative of spinning as a domestic
occupation,were to spin cotton.The majority were too small and light to spin an elastic
fibre like wool.

The scholars found a controversy in the fact that Rgveda does not mention cotton
cultivation while mohenja Daro shows cotton spinning.They give Rgveda a timespan
after the IVC and therefore has to find out a reason for this discrepancy and therefore
they say,during IVC it was present and by some reason the plant became extinct by the
time the Rgveda was written and then it resurfaced again.But this is illogical thinking just
to accommodate the view that Rgveda is after IVC .Rgvedic rishi knew both wool and
cotton spinning .But it is possible that the cotton was a wild grown variety and not
cultivated by human beings during that period.Therefore though spinning is
described,cotton as a cultivated plant is not mentioned.This is my view and appears to be
more logical explanation of why cotton is not mentioned as cultivated plant in
Rgveda.Then there is no need to interpose an interim period between IVC and Rgveda
and it also means that Rgveda was known even during IVC or before that .The

predetermined date of Rgveda that it is after IVC and after a imagined Aryan invasion,is
the problem of controversy between scholars and it is an artificial construct only.
May they guard the strands in the warp from breaking ,says yajurveda(Y 383.4).He Is the
warp and the woof(Y.398.8).The 34 strands of threads required for the yagna have been
woven.I tie up the ends of the threads which have been broken in the weaving.9Y
375.1).In marriage ceremonies the bride discarding the premarital garments which
become the prerequisites of the officiating Brahman .Rgveda asks”Put away that
garment soiled by the body”(R X.7.1.29).This garment is inflaming.It is pungeant.It is
like stale soma.It is like poison.The Brahmin who knows the surya,verily desires only the
bridal garment(R X 7.1.34)This is the wedding of the devotee bride to the athman the
sun and the discarding of body for the Athman.

Behold the forms of Surya,the ashasana,the vishasana,and the adhivikarthana .Of these
the Brahmin relieves her.(R X 7.1.35)
The bridal trousseau of three different types of clothes are mentioned here.The ashasana
is the border cloth and vishasana is the headcloth or veil.This is the clothes covering the
upper part of the body and the head.They are ornamental and woven with embroidery by
the mothers and grandmothers before their daughters/granddaughters attain puberty.The
border design of this is mentioned here.Adhivikarthana is the cloth covering the lower
part of body .It is a stitched and a tailored garment ,a type of underskirt of the
bride.So,Rgvedic women as brides wore such clothes and removed them during
ceremony of marriage for fertility rites to happen.

Rgveda (X 6.7.8)mentioned silama for tieing ploughs .It is Abroma angusta in modern
terminology.Ropes of different types were used to tie carts,mangers,cattle,in wells,in nets
of fishermen and by hunters and agriculturists and both cultivated and wild fibres of
vegetable type were used.About lotus fibres Rgveda says”She breaks down the precipices
of the mountains ,like a digger for the lotus fibres”(R 6.5.12.2).This fibre has to be
carefully reeled and is used for sacred purposes.

10.Harvesting of crops:-

Harvesting begins with a prayer.A regular festival is there in the local temple,where the
first sheaves cut are brought and examined by the expert and the nature of harvest
determined and this first rice (in Malayalam Puthari nivedyam as in Guruvayur temple to
this day)is offered to the local deity amidst much reverential rejoicing and
accompaniment of temple music.The harvesting tool is the sickle.This is the sole method
in rural India to this day for harvesting.”I take sickle in my hand with a prayer to Thee”(R
8.8.9.10).

When Indian National congress was formed the symbol selected was a farmer with
plough ,and a pair of oxen.And when Indian communist Party was formed it was a sickle
with a sheave of paddy,both being the symbols and tools of agricultural vedic India.It is
interesting to note that when congress split several times,the present symbol of hand was
selected by Indira Gandhi and when CPI split,the CPI(M) selected instead of sheaf of

crop,a hammer retaining the symbol of sickle.The hand power and ths sickle power (but
without ploughing,good harvest or oxen )and hammer of the artisan has replaced the
priority concept of India.

“May crops swell at my prayers.Let the sickles cut down the heavy crops of grain”(R
6.12.9.10).May there be abundant food,may the grain fall ripe towards the sickle(R
10.9.2.3).There were two types of harvesting.Cutting the crop at level of ground and
separating only the earheads (headling)as in irrigated raggi,jowar,even wheat and barley
in some places.

“As barley is harvested by separating the earheads from the stalk”(Y 122.1).Thou milkest
the nutritious grain from the humid stalk(R 2.2.2.6).Cutting down crops to encourage
tillering was known.”May you tiller a hundredfold by my cutting”(Y 2.6).
The inferences are:- The fodder grass grown from which many cuts are usually taken
,more tillering taking place after eacg cut;The practice of rattooning was known ,That
is,taking a second crop from a stubble growth of first without sowing or planting
afresh.;That plentiful aftermath of stubble growth from harvested field of rice or barley
was sought after ,for grazing of cattle;And practicing coppicing tree growth as in fuel
trees inducing many stems from the cut end was known.
Pruning of forest trees was done annually and proper care to their cultivation and
preservation given.The reference in the rgveda already mentioned(8.5.10.6) used the
word old pruner,because pruning requires much experience for the gardener and
gardening /and forest care was entrusted to experienced old people .

11.Storage:-

Much cleaning was done before storing the grains.Winnowing the grain was already
mentioned for cleaning the unnecessary fine particles(Y 354.8).Grain put through a sieve
and then winnowed in wind is free from chaff and light grains.The great granary in
Mohenjodaro bear testimony to the vedic storage ceremony .The prayer when the grain is
filled into the granary was :-“May the grain heaps grow and the stores increase”.(Y
109.2).The cleaned grain heaped in the threshing floor and villagers worshipping it is still
seen in villages of India.When the Upanishads say “Annam or food is God and worship it
as Athman “it was not just theory but a practice every one meticulously followed .The
grain after proper prayers and pooja/worship is carted and taken to the grain store either
in temple or house .The children and people in Kerala during this time say”Illam
nira,vallam nira,pathaayam nira,unnide vayaru nira”(May the houses,the baskets,the
granaries and the stomachs of children be filled with grains/food) and I remember my
little brother doing worship and bringing the first grain home and all of us chanting this
prayer together .Now there is no such rituals,nor is there agriculture or granaries to be
filled.Everything has been lost at least in some villages of India but persists in others and
in local temples as relic of a bygone lifestyle.If this is religion ,what is the lifestyle of a
people ? The lifestyle of Indians itself is their spirituality and their religion and
misunderstanding this great tradition is the new generation theoretical historians’ greatest
mistake.

12.Pests and diseases:-

Field pests and storehouse pests were familiar and were dreaded enemies of the
farmer.The visible enemies like beetles,bugs,caterpillaers,insects and invisible enemies
like fungi and bacteria caused diseases to grains or destroyed them .In the stores the
rats,and moths and sparrows in the fields were also enemies for the farmer.
“Worms,insects and other pests ,seen and unseen,of many kinds and many names ,male
and female ,leaders and followers,I destroy you root and branch “(Athar 165).
‘O,Aswins,destroy the rats and bandicoots that burrow into our granaries.They may eat
up all our barley.Save our grains.Destroy the borers,beasts ,locusts,which damage the
grains in the earheads and prevent them from ripening.”(Ath 223).Atharvaveda uses an
incantation to kill all worms as follows:”Grind down worms as a physician grinds his
medicinal mixtures in a mortar.I destroy those worms which are visible to the eye and
which are not visible,in the body,in the head,in the blood vessels,and those which bore
and those in the jungle,in the herbs,in the cows,in waters and and in my body”(Athar
66).The presence of disease causing organisms seen and unseen and the concept of their
ubiquitous nature and methods of their destruction as part of medicinal knowledge is here
indicated.

In page 26 of his book A.K.Yagnanarayana Aiyer gives two incidences from his
childhood.His grandmother used to heal diseases with manthra ,vibhoothi application
etc.And he says her manthras in local language were almost similar to the manthra in
Atharvaveda.Once he had a Government sponsored insect pest control programme and
the manager who did everything he had learned in the university failed to control the
pests.Then a local person recited a manthra over the crop.The pest disappeared to the
manager’s astonishment.He reported this in his data.But its publication aroused skeptical
remarks ,not unmingled with pity for the poor manager’s credulity and scientific
knowledge.

13.Food consumption:-

Grain was boiled whole and converted to a whole meal.It was made to cakes like
chapaathi,poori,paratha,dosai,iddli,vadai and the like and this was a little different in
upper and lower India as it is today.The food was dripping with ghee which was abundant
so that people got nutritious food.Rice was parched grain and the puffed article .The
puffed rice was handed over to the bride by the brother to be offered to the fire.This
custom persists from vedic times to date.Pulses ,oilseeds and grains and the different
articles and spices of medicinal value formed the culinary art of a variety of dishes and
both men and women were proficient in this.In Mahabharatha we find King Nala of
Naishadha and Bheemasena as experts in this art.Vegetables,edible roots,butter
,milk,curds ,ghee,and honey are mentioned as diets of the vedic Indians.
Throw corn on the grinding stones(R 11.7.93).Vegetable cake of fried meal,do thou be
substantial wholesome invigorating and the body may then grow fat on boiled milk and
boiled barley(R 1.24.8.9.10).The grain was powdered before cooking in a grinder from
the above reference.Grains of parched barley steeped in ghee is mentioned in rgveda(R

1.4.5.2).We have prepared parched grain and curds for Thee and fried barley for Thee
,also cakes and butter.(R 3.4,14.7).Nourished by vegetables which are bestowed by Thee
,may I live a hundred winters (R 2.4.1.2).O,plants,who yield flowers ,fruits,edible roots to
gladden Him with your produce(Y 177 .12)is a hymn in Yajurveda.
All these show the prominence of agriculture and a predominantly vegetarian diet.But did
the people eat flesh as well? The hunting and wandering tribes did eat flesh of the hunted
animals for certain.It was mainly small game.The kings also ate meat due to their hunting
habits.The kings or kshathriya belonging to the mountainous and forest tribes were more
of this habit than the Brahmakshathra kings who remained vegetarians .The Kerala kings
were of these two categories.The predominant population was vegetarians .
The Brahmins,the brahmakshathra and the vaisya remained vegetarians .The others ate
meat on special days,occasions,and on sacrificial days(R 1.22.6.12; Sathapatha 3.1.2.21)
and on the arrival of a guest who wants a nonvegetarian meal.(Grihyasoothra .A.Jacobi
.Encyclopedia of religions and ethics)26.The answers and interpretations vary according to preference and context of interpretor as shown by the interpretation of Rgveda
(1.22.6.12) by sayana and Maheedhara as the eager devas are clamouring for the remains
of the sacrificial animal to be offered to them in fire,and Wilson interprets as the mortam
men desirous of flesh are clamouring for the remains after divine offering(pp 262.vol 1
Wilsons translatory note on the hymn).The matter is one of predilection.The vegetarian
sayana and Maheedhara knowing the Indian tradition more,and the nonvegetarian and
less familiar European Wilson from his own knowledge of taste of flesh has their
independent interpretations.The mountain and forest people were regular nonvegetarians
who survived on small game and forest produce.Thus three categories existed .Pure
vegetarians,occasional meat eating and regularly eating small game flesh.

In sacrificial offerings the remains of the animals were offered to agni by priests.Part of it
was disposed of by the meat eating population.

According to Sri Nateshasasthri (Tamil translation of Manthraprasna .Kadalanghadi
Natesasasthri pp 185.,307.10.)27the rule was to offer the most priced article to the guest and in agrarian India cattle being the most priced article it was given to the guest.The
vegetarian guest would have taken it home and protected while the nonvegetarian
nonagricultural professional guest would have preferred it as a meal and the host might
have been by rule of athithipooja ,sacrificing his most coveted and desired possession as
a nishkaamakarma.In veda the horse is a symbol of universe and cow is the symbol of
world and sacrifice of it for others was a nishkaamakarma.(Preface to yajurveda.Tamil
translation.Ashiriyar M.R.Jambunathan pp12)28.Before Bhaagavatha period during
Vaajapeya sacrifice 20 or more cows were sacrificed (Life of Appayyadeekshithar
published in marghabandhu vol 14.No:9.pp22-24)29 and after Bhagavatha period the
sacrifice of animals was completely prohibited.Bhaaagavatha period happened before BC
3100,when Vyaasa lived.Hence,the vedic hymns with reference to animal sacrifices were
before that .

14.Status of agriculture and agriculturist:-

High praise is given to both agriculture and agriculturists.It is the whole foundation of

life on earth ,and of happiness and health and wealth.The pursuit of it as a profession was
greatly honoured and enjoyed .May your wealth be nourished by agriculture(Y

118.1)shows that it was the backbone of Indian economy and still is whether we
recognize it or not.
Play not with dice,pursue agriculture,delight in the wealth so aquired .You
gambler,remember there are cows and there is a wife(to look after and care for) says
Rgveda(R 10.3.5.13).Rgveda(6.6.4.2)speaks of Lords of wealth of corn indicating the
economy was agrarian.Grand us a son,who is the owner of cultivated lands ,the possessor
of thousands (R 6.2.5.1)wide fields,vast treasures ,spacious pastures has Indra bestowed
upon his friends(R 3.3.2.15).

The tiller of the land/Uzhava in tamil had a special status in society.Janaka ,the learned
king of Mithila was a tiller .They are neither Brahmins,nor do they offer libations,and are
devoid of wisdom and has speech that is prakrithic and uncultured ,yet they becoming the
ploughmen and pursuing agriculture(R 10.6.3.9)attained great status.This is a modern
attitude a white collar job university postgraduate has about the illiterate farmers even
today,but we must remember that the ryot was and is the pivot of society when food has
to be produced and when there is dire needs of famine and after that they are forgotten as
soon as plenty prevails.The white collar professional think that the farmer is only one
step ahead of the bullock behind which he walks and the only difference between them is
that one talks and the does not.But when the whitecollar professional needs food ,he has
to get the grain produced by that same tiller /agriculturist.This was known by the vedic
scholar and not by the modern scholar is the only difference we can find between them.
The sangham literature is abundant with high praise for the uzhava and for the Chera
kings who produce grains in abundance so that he could feed both the sides of the
Mahabharatha war(18 akshouhini of army)free of cost for 18 days .

15.Flora and fauna of vedic times.

Most of the vedic flora arenot identified yet or given the latinised nomenclature.
Here some of the named ones only are mentioned.

Soma-sarcostemma acidum and Asclepias acida

Madhu vanaspathi liquorice root (Athar 34 1)
.
Vibheethaka Terminalia bellerica used as dice.

Khayer Mimosa catechu used as wood for bolt of axle of cart(R 3.4.15,19)

Sishu –Dalbergia sissoo is wood for floor of carts

Shami Acacia suma one of the pair of firestick Arani to produce fire
.
Aswatha Ficus religiosa

Salmali against snake poison possibly Hippamone Marcella used for poisoning arrow tips

Reeds and sedges for weaving mats cyperus pangorei ,bamboo,and palms

Grasses like kusa,shara,dharbha,shairya,veerana

Lotus

Shyaami which restore a diseased person to normal state

Sirakhthian which is a fungicide for white stem disease of plants

Prisniparni for impoverished blood ,weakening,death of foetus,abortions etc

Rohini for broken bone

sapamarka for hunger ,thirst,loss of vigour

Arundhathi for increasing milk flow of cows

Vishanaagai to cure diseases

Paithvam against snakebite

Aswathy and somavathy and udojasi for cure of diseases

Palasa Butea frondosa

Vrishyam or veerya for virility

Apaskambham and shrishti antedote against all poisons

Vaaranaavathi also a similar antedote to poisons

Uthaanaparna is a love potion used by women to win undivided love of her husband/lover

free from rival women/wives

Janghidam a panacea to poisons aches coughs fevers

Authumbaramani promoting nourishment .vigourous growth and strength

There are many more as described in charaka and in susruthasamhitha used in ancient
India .(Given in my commentary to Susruthasamhitha in tabular form)

The soma plant was always a wild plant and never cultivated and grew in stony
soil,among rocks,crevices on boulder strewn hills .On Sahyadri they are grown in areas
controlled by the Raja of Palghat (Kollanghot) and he has to bring soma plant for a
sacrifice being conducted in Kerala .Soma is the Lord of the creeping plants(R 10.2,11.2
and 9.7.11.2)and it grows in the bright half of the month and withers in dark half .The
plant is brought as a a cartload to sacrificial hall by the chief of the hilltribes (In kerala
the Palghat raja).It is crushed between two stones squeezed between two pairs of boards
,the planks.Juice strained with piece of cloth(woolen)into a wooden trough the
dronakalasa and into crooked pitchers.Green tinted yellow hued ,tawney coloured bright
juice is described in Rgveda(10.2.1.1 ;2.9.2)Juice is offered fresh .Stale juice is poisonous
and not fit to be drunk.(R 10.7.1.34).It is mixed with barley ,curds and honey of the
bee(R 8.1.4.8) which is another forest produce.The soma exhilarates like juice of wine(R
8.1.2..12)was known to the people.Since it is freshly taken the ebriety is not due to
alcoholic fermentation also was known.The fresh juice can produce nausea and vomiting
in some people and then why was the worshippers in Southramani and other sacrificial
rites taking this juice ? Because,it gives strength and valour to Indra in dawn,noon,and
evening (R 6.3.20.2). The fact is that even when all the lowlying areas of cultivable lands
are lost ,human race can still survive in hills and forests with forest produce and remain
strong and healthy to survive draughts and famines and floods by such food.The
preservation of forests and hillycrevices and the preservation of forest life and the hill
people as such is actually the secret of continued existence of the human race on the
globe.The story of Parasurama reclaiming the lowlying land of western coast from flood
waters and the survival of human /royal race from the surviving wife of Krithaveeraya
Arjuna and a hillchief in the Sahya mountains to sustain the race is thus extremely
important for a historian of modern times.In Thrikarudra sacrifice Indra in company of
Vishnu with the help of Maruths drink soma and fills his belly as a lake and with that
became efficient to do great deeds (R 11.2 ;11.1.2).The worshippers who partake in soma
drinking is immortal through his race as seen by Rgveda (8.6.6.3).
What ingredient is responsible for this effect ?An astringent with narcotic effects but not
alcoholic effects is responsible for strengthening and rejuvenation.The
somalatha(Sanskrit,Karnataka and Malayalam) is called Aattukodi in Tamil.

Vedic fauna:-

Black antelope,bull,white antelope,monkey,wild pigeons,crocodile,elephants(Y
263.1)owl,cat,wild goat,mongoose,crane,fishes,sea
gull,swans,woodpecker,pythons,rats,lizards,snakes,spotted
deer,crabs,eagle,turkey,jackal,doves,hares,cocks,chameleon,dogs,ass,porcupine,kite,wolf,
lion ,tiger,rhinoceros,ram,horse(Y 263-276),camels frogs,cow,sheep and goats,buffalo(R
8.5.5.7)etc are named and their lakshna(morphological characters) uses and care and the
diseases and cure for each are known showing how advanced the knowledge of the vedic
Indian was.It is noteworthy that none of these flora and fauna are Arctic or non-Indian to
support the farfetched view of the vedic Aryan migrating from some other place in the
north or west.Balaganghadhara Tilak was the first to point out this fact.The luxurious

vegetation of the tropical and temperate climate is known to the vedic Aryan means the
vedic Aryan is Indian itself.And the veda is more ancient than the modern historians
think and the vedic Aryan race of India too .

The cow in India:- Used for agriculture,animal husbandry ans as wealth and a sacred
animal provided rich nourishment topeople with milk,ghee,butter and whey and curds
and a rich variety of food preparations made from them.Four types of bullocks are
described as plough bullocks,cart bullocks,pack bullocks and temple buuls.(Uzhava
kaala,vandikkaala,pothikkala,and ambalakkala).The cattle were kept in herds and there
were herdsmen .No house was devoid of at least one cow.The number of cows,the
number and size of the full granary determined the state of wealth.the cattle
raids,expeditions to save the stolen cattle ,victorious exploits of such expeditions etc are
seen in vedic hymns,in Mahabharatha and in sangham literature showing the
antiquity,continuity of practice both in North and South alike.Cows were kept in walled
enclosures for safety.Watch dogs looked after them.They could warn the owner and also
attack the intruders. Cows were temptations even for great people like Viswamithra
.Milching cows,making curd,butter,ghee,and keeping the nutrition of family was done by
all as domestic duty of every day importance while some of the yadava families did it for
barter and for service of king and people.There were stores of green grass,hay,and
grazing grounds and pastures for herds of cows and it was common property of village
and cows were fed on millet grains as a concentrated feed to increase flow of milk.Ample
supply of pure drinking water for them was from streams,canals,rivers,and lifted from
wells.Treatment of cows against diseases and injuries was known and herbal cures were
known.The barren cow and cows susceptible for abortion were treated .The good and bad
cows as well as humans were distinguished on the basis of economic
production,prosperity it brings,and the continuation of the races by fertility.Cows were
offered as gifts of charity,as rewards for scholarship,and for religious merits and the
number gifted varied with the economic status of the donor,their disposition (liberal or
not)etc.Wealthy but miserly traders who do not give charity were commended to wrath
of Gods in hymns.That means the middle man who is greedy was disliked even by the
vedic farmer and his priest.And every one was eager to have good name ,fame and
divine blessing and did charity with liberal mind.Morphological physical character of the
different cows is given much importance in the veda showing that they were aware of
crossbreeding just as Mendelian way .Yajurveda 279-91 describes cows of varying
colours on entire body,patchy,piebald,on one side of body,on other side of body,on face
only,on ear only,on tip of ear only,spotted,white patch on leg,feet,forehead,back and so
on.And it distinguishes the silky skinned,coarse skinned,horned,hornless,based on
different horn size and shape,with longtufted tail,and stumpy tail and all sorts of hybrid
varieties.Well nourished body and capacious udder (R 1.21.13.6;R 2.3.10.3)were good
signs of a milchcow.The value of nutrition in milk and dairy products was
wellknown.The dead cattle were disposed by scavengers whostayed outside the city walls
.They also disposed of the human carcasses.The position of scavengers outside
village/city was to minimize the unsightly and unaesthetic sights as well as to reduce
smell of disposal including burning of dead bodies and smell of tanning.The leather
industry ,making of garments,cuirass,sandals,straps,thongs,whips,bellows,bottles,receptacles in
sacrifices,musical instruments like drums covered by animal skin,horns and bone flutes
etc are were carried out by the chamar/paraya scavenger people outside citywalls.
Horses were pack horses,riding horses,chariot horses,war horses,race horses,ploughing
horses and sacrificial horses.Their descriptions are given with due importance and good
judgement and close observation.The girdles,trappings ,spurs and heal goads ,saddles
,bridles,heel ropes,halters are all mentioned and how to look after them and care for them
described.The horse’s neighing when it approaches a mare is described.Horse breeding
with utmost care so that each variety suited for each purpose was evolved is seen .The
locally bread horses and the imported high quality war horses are known and used for
different functions.

Thus animal husbandry,agriculture and trade and commerce and economy were well
looked after by the class of vaisya ,who were a group of travelers as well as settlers .They
were accompanied by a group of musicians and musical band with different instruments
both for entertainment and selling of instruments and the spread of art and sciences
through the class of traveling vaisya happened from prevedic times and the fame and
richness of India became widespread in foreign countries like Babylonia,Sumeria,Assyria,Egypt and later on in Greece,Egypt,Rome and the European
countries.The continuity of this fame itself is evidence of the agricultural and trade and
commerce economic importance of India .The predominance of vaisya class and
Krishna as the representative of this class(krishi,goraksha,vanijya) in his childhood is an
important factor since Krishna lived before BC 3104 when the pralaya took away his port
city of seatrade and commerce ,at Dwaraka .This perid almost corresponds to Harappan
and Indus Valley civilization is a fact we always forget.