Indian agroeconomy from 1500-1800

Indian economy from 1500-1800 (European ,Pre-British period):-

There was a restructuring of relational networks to mobilize larger volumes of surplus to

meet the needs of the consolidated bulk taxes and cesses into a single charge on land

,assessed and collected in cash except in case of lands under irrigated rice cultivation

where revenue claims were in kind. The major changes were for benefit of political

authorities and prosperous cultivators especially on sugar cane,spices,plantains more than

on food grains. It was favorable to trading communities .The earlier dense networks of

local level exchanges ,periodic and daily markets small collectors of rural conducted their

transactions were weakened by this and gradually lost. The growth of crafts localized to

Gujrat,Coromandel,Bengal because of the sea trade facilities and the political power of

Europeans in these areas. The guild of Karkola weavers of Kancheepuram had roots even

in remote villages. The nodal points of long distance trade of late medieval network were

Aden and Morcha on red sea. Basra and Hormuz on Persian gulf Surat and Calicut on

western seaboard.,Pulicat and Hughli on Coromandel.Malaka and Malay archipelago. The

imperial capitals were Delhi in North and Vijayanagara in South. They and their entrepots

dominated Tran regional trade-In transshipment the Governing by the Imperial capital was

honored by all Indian merchants and people. Why riches concentrated on Coromandel

and Gujarat coast disproportionately?

1Regional specialization of production was encouraged

2Increased commodification of exchange network

3.Patterning of new political linkages

4.Irrigated rice cultivation. Rice from Bengal fed weavers of Tamil Nad .Bengal also gave

raw silk to Gujarat.

5.Wet farming and cotton textile production and export

6.Monetary system. Gold mine in Southern peninsula.Silver in North India.

Tin, lead and copper coin of lower denomination ,uniformity achieved by weight .

7.In early 17th century India was the major supplier of clothes to S E Asia,Iran,Arab

world and Africa.(just like the Vedic and Sathavahana periods)and Gujarat and

Coromandal specialized in this. The world system associated with Indian ocean was not

yet influenced by the ruthless drive for individual accumulation of wealth.

In rice growing areas enough water and manure from cattle ensured sufficient

foodgrains.The fields were separated into small plots to ensure drainage and skilled

labor was necessary for maximum production .The agriculturists were skilled

professionals and knew how to maximize yields with varieties of seeds suited to

particular types of soil resistant to strains of crop disease .The disuse of the old localized

markets and continued participation of petty peddlers in long distance trade became an

impediment to trade and subordination of artisans by the newcomer politicians of Europe.

There had been two sultanates in India between 1400-1404.In Gujarat on west coast where

the princes who abandoned the alliance with Delhi Sultanate came and settled. The other

in Malacca south of Malay peninsula whose Raja converted to Islam. It was the same time

when economic and agrarian policies changed between Zamorin and Raja of

Perumpadappu/Cochin in Kerala .The real reason was 5000 Km apart ,a common cause

for transoceanic trade had happened .In Egypt Sultan of Barspay took monopoly of spice

trade. This ruined the merchants who dominated it since 12th century. Their network

disintegrated and the benefit went to Cambay and Calicut .In 1433 Chinese abandoned

western Indian ocean precisely because of this reason, after 7 expeditions here for 30
years with 100 armed junks equipped for war every 5 yrs .

Malacca is the point at which both the monsoons die down. That means ,at the time when

the Islamic and Arab world dominated and China withdrew as a result of this sudden

change, the Portuguese was brought to Calicut by a Gujarat born Muslim sailor .All the

medieval agrarian kingdoms and economies were traditionally Indian and they started to

convert first to Islam and then to Christian due to political gains .The last to convert was

Manidweepa(Java)in 1525.With conversions both preachers and traders increased in such

areas. The domination was not by foreigners but by Indian –born converts and they took

over the network since they knew the trade from their ancestors. In 1510 Goa became

Portuguese territory. It became center of horse trade .Both Vijayanagara and Bahmani

sultan of Deccan bought horses from Portuguese just as they did before the Portuguese

came .

The international sea-route trade was dominated by Vijayanagaram.Their trade was

concentrated in the following centers:-

1.From parts of Karnataka,Tanur,Calicut,Venad and Ceylon to Gulf,Yemen,and East

Africa.

2.From Bengal,Pegu to West Indo-China,Malacca,Sumatra,Ceylon,Maldives

3.Copper from Malacca to Pasei in North of Sumatra was exchanged for pepper .Pepper

was traded for Rice for Malacca at Martabam. Rice ,pepper and ginger from Malabar to

all markets along the coast and to Ceylon and all global centers. Spices from Malabar and

Moluccas was obtained by Javanese from very early days from primitive people in

exchange of rice, glass trinkets and old pots. Rice and textiles from Coromandel and

Gujarat .

4.Vijayanagar distributed sugar purely powdered as far as Hormiz and Eden. Bengal sent

it in tightly sewn sacks of raw channa or jute and leather .It was sent in black clay pais

with vegetable and fruit preservatives as jaggary.Bengal muslin and Coromandel painted

silk were in demand and Gujarat had distribution networks for textiles.

5.Cotton and indigo cultivation for dying:- Done in spring in every village. Technique was

specific for each village. The fabric is blanched, dyed ,then woven and printed. In Gujarat

carpets ,leathers, jewels of agate,carnelian,ivory,shell objects, glass trinkets were specialty

6.Western ocean:- Pepper ,ginger,cinnamon,and rice were exchanged for gold and metals

in the distributing ports. Pepper ,nuts ,cloves, nutmeg ,porcelain, textiles also exported.

Gold once it reached people’s hands remained accumulated in India .

Banias and jains (vaisya )were major bankers and financiers /dealers in precious stone

trade

In this period the coastal boatsmen and sailors converted to Islam .At the dawn of 16th

century Tome Pires wrote that Gulf of Cambay in India holds out two arms ,one of them

touches Aden,and the other Malacca. The Malabar Mopillas were converts and children of

the traders who had children in the native women. These Moplas displaced Nestorian

Christians from port of Calicut.They lost the pepper market to the new converts. The

Christian guild existed in rival Cochin in 1503.The rivalry of Zamorin and Cochin Raja

was actually a competition between these two rivals for trade supremacy. In 1504 it is

Mathias from Kayamkulam who loaded Portuguese vessels. From then on we see two

prominent names which historians think is Muslim names .But actually they are not. The

two names are Cherian and Pate Marekkar.(Merchants ,companies and trade .Europe and

Asia in the early modern era. Studies in modern capitalism.Ed Sushil Chowdhury.and

Michael Morineau .Cambridge uty press 1999)

Cherian is a Christian name at present. But it actually was a Tamil origin name from

Cherayyan,the Ayyan of Chera .And Pate Marekkar means the people who have a

pathemmari(a small ship) just like KattaMaraikkarar in Tamil. The Marakkar or the

shipman later was taken as a Muslim name because many coastal people and sailors

converted to Islam. At this period due to conversion Kerala Muslim and Gujrat Muslim

were at apogee of power when Portuguese came. The maritime sailors and merchants

were powerful right from Vedic prehistoric, historic Sathavahana times and their trade

rights included undertaking military action and seizing territories .That is how the

converted Aliraja of Cannanore got Maldives and Andamans from the old ancestors

of him. We find during Portuguese time names like Naina Chathu,Nina Thirivanka,Naina

Koppathaalu etc involved in Malacca rice trade and textile trade .They were specialized

Indian traders in Pegu,Siam,Jawa,Molluccas and protected by Tamil Hindu princesses

who were Sultans of Malacca.

The chetty/sreshty trading people in Kerala were active in money trade, money

conversion,financing,precious stones and were allowed Pallacku,golden trumpets and

brigands and armies just like Brahmins allotted to them by king (just as Perumpataku

Mutharaya or the sailors of big ships in pre-sangam and sangham age ).This was also

given to the new Christian traders by Kerala kings as we find from historical records

showing the equality and justice they employed towards all irrespective of religion and

probably their trust in all alike.

We find by 1510 the major centers of Hormiz,Goa,Mlacca under Portuguese and

Egypt, under Ottoman Turk ,in Iran the Safavid power, and Mughal expansion in India

under the two religious converts of sailors the Indian trade and commerce succumbs and

thus the old system of Governance also looses its long-lasting co-operation and unity. That

is nothing very mysterious and there are no unanswered questions as many people think

about how such a long-lasting community of trade and commerce and food sufficiency

collapsed suddenly. The networks of economy were lost and financial burden made the

unsuspecting people and their kings succumb to the worst which they least expected.