1Kolathunad under Raja of Kolathiri of Chirakkal with Amsams or Taluks :-
Payyannur
Vellur
Karuvellur
Korom
Eramam
Kuttur
Kuttiyeri
Chulali
Kaniyileri
Kalliad
Malapattamkoyyam
Kurumathur
Taliparambapattuvam
Elom
Cherutalam
Kunynyimanagalam
Madayi
Mattul
Cherukunnu
Kannapuran
Irinava
Pappinisseri
Kalliasseri
Maraya
Kayaralam
Kuttyattur
Maniyur
Munderi
Chelari
Kannadiparamba
Chirakkal
Azhikod
Pulati
Elavayur
WET LANDS YR PATTAM % CONTEXT
1731-32 20% K.Raja when Bednur Raja invaded
1765-66 30 %
1776-77 50%
1777-1780 100%
1781-83 50%
1785-88 commmuted to 40%/1000 seers (in Sultani Fanam)
1788-89 …….
1790-92 50%(in kind)
1792-93 survey by Company with Raja
1798-99 company 50%
1799-1800 50%commuted to 41 ½ /seer (Rs)
1799-1801 .10 seer /potipad(poti=30seer to sow ).Usually 10 per poti was for devaswam .This was taken by Govt
Velinellu(paddy on hedges)and kaithinellu(for ropes)usual 16 seer for 100 seers. ½ taken by Govt
1801-02 Macleod survey.
1805-06 All produce of the nad collected and where shortage found extra collected and where increase found ,it was not reduced 50% Hyder invasion.Hyder,Kolathiri,Arakkal Biwi
Hyder Ali
Hyder
Raja (in kind)
Tipu sultan
People deserted due to Islamisation
The Raja
Company
Company
Company
Company
Company
Garden land:-
1731-32 20%
1765-66 30%
1776-77 50%
1777-80 100%
1781-83 50%(Pepper was taken in kind)
1790-92 50%(in cash)
1792-99 commutation rate for coconut Rs 10/1000,betelnut 0.6.4/1000,jacks 6/10 of pattam whatever is the number of trees
pepper Rs 130.0.0 per Kandy of 640 pounds
1805-06 50% as Janmy pymash as on wetlands and the reduction not made if excess produce.Thus in both gardenlands and grain fields the entire native population suffered right from 1731 to 1805(Logans Manual).
Puttada crops(Like Modam in South Malabar )are highland crops in Elom,Madayi,Cherutalam Kunyiyimangalam etc .Commuted as Rs 35 /1000 local seer and other areas as 40 % of gross produce.
Punam crops(rice,pulses,other grains,jungle cotton 30 % of gross produce in named villages above and 40 5 in rest of the Nad.Commutation rate was 35 /1000 local seer in cash.
Ellu(Gingily) 20% of gross produce commuted to Rs 40 per 1000 local seers.
2.Randathara (originally under Kolathiri)from where Cheraman Perumal took his final departure .The Amsams in the Taluk of Chirakkal are:
Edakad
Chembilod
Iruveri
Makreri
Anjarakandi
Mavilayi
Mulappilanghad
In 1741 the ruling Achanmaars of 4 families and their Anjoottuvar(500 Nairs)were taken by company under special protection to protect the factory at Tellicherry.The transaction took the form of a mortgage of the Nad for Fanams 60000 ,since it was rich in pepper.In April 1793 on 26th the transaction ended between Achanmar and joint commissioner in allowing the former a deduction in amount of revenue payable by them for their own lands equivalent to the 20% of revenue allowed to other chieftains of Malabar as Malikhana.
WET LANDS
1765 15 % on paddy in kind
1791 50% of produce commuted to 43 Rs /1000 seers.
1792-93 Achanmars wet land permanently assessed as 15 %.Commuted to Rs 45/1000seers.Similarly that of Beebi and Chirakkal Raja. Others same as 43 Rs /1000 seers as above. Company
GARDEN LANDS
1765 20 %
1792 50 % of produce as
Coconut tree 0.1.7
Betel nut tree 0.0.4
Jack tree 0.3.2
Pepper-vine 0.2.0
1793. Achanmar permanently 20 %as
Coconuts 10.0.0/nut
Betel nut 0.8.0/nut
Jack 0.6.4/tree
MISCELLANEOUS
Puttada,Punam ,Ellu: 25 % commuted as Rs 40,Rs 40,Rs 80 /seer respectively.
Company
Telicherry and Dharmapattanam Island as British settlements:-
Amsams originally belonged to the Kottayam Taluk.(portion of ancient Kolathunad) Kolathiri,Kottayam and Cannanore Bibi had claims of trade there .Till 1776 the British factory was there .And when Mysore invasion happened it became a residency,because it was not paying as before.
Dharmadam
Thalassery
Mailanjanmam
Thiruvanghat
Wet lands Till 1772 the rate was only 20 %.1n 1776 commuted to Rs 43/1000 seers( as 25 %) in Tellichery, 50 % as Rs 45 /1000 seer in Dharmapattanam,35 % for temples of Dharmapattanam as Rs 45 /1000 seers.The land under company took full 100 % share for company itself.
Garden lands of private persons at 25 % as
Coconuts 0.1.7/fruit tree
Betelnut 0.0.9/fruit tree
Jacks 0.6.4 per fruit tree
Pepper vine 0.3.2 /fruitful vine
In Dharmapattanam all had to pay 50 % of pattam.And puttada and ellu in Dharmapattanam 25 % commuted as Rs 40/and Rs 80/1000 seers
4.Iruvazhinad.(Under Kolathiri).Held by Nambiars of
Kunnummal,Chandroth,Kilakkedath,Kampurathu,collectively called Kulatha Nambiars .Kuranghot Nairs possession was part of Iruvazhinad originally .Consists of the Amsams of Kottayam like
Panur
Puttur
Trippangottur
Panniyannur
Perinkulam
Kariyad
Wetlands Pattam collectors/ rulers
1765-82 50% Rs 40/1000 seer
Tipus reign same (but in kind)
1790-91 50 %
1793 raised to Rs 45/1000 seer on Narangholi Nambiar estate
1793-94 &95 50 %
1795-96 60 %
1799 -1800 72 % (except on Narangholi estate and 4 desams of Panur Amsam) Hyder Ali ,managed by Chirakkal Raja
Tipu
Company
Company ,managed by Nambiars
Garden lands:- 1765-82 (For Hyder Ali /collected by Chirakkal Raja)
Coconuts 0.1.7/fruit tree
Betelnut 0.0.9/fruit tree
Jacks 0.3.2/fruit tree
Tipu’s regime :-
Coconuts 0.2.3
Betelnut 0.0.9
Jacks 0.4.6
This was great burden and whole Nad assessed and people were allowed to fix their own rates.
In 1793 under the company the rate of coconuts and betelnuts same as in 1765-82 .
Jacks :- 0.6.4
Pepper 0.2.18/25
1794-95 The Nambiars assessment and fixation:-Pepper same .
1796-97 Narangholi Nair estate assessed .(He was involved with rebellion of Pazhassi Raja )and fixed as 100 %
1799-1800 Othe rareas raised to 72 % and Naranghli remained 100 %.
Miscellaneous :-1790-91 Puttada ,punam and ellu 25 %
1792-93 40 5
5.Kuranghot Nair Nad (Between French and English settlements )belonged to Kottayam.
Two amsams
Olavilam and Kallayi.
The Nair lost in battle to English in 1719 and had to cede desam of Mailam in Mailamjanmam.Till 1766 he was a friend to French .Hyder came in that year.He and Raja of Cochin (apart from Achanmar under protectin)were the only chieftains permitted to retain the district.He paid tribute to Hyder.1779 he assisted British in taking Mahe .1782 he was taken prisoner by British when the Tellichery siege ended.till 1785 paid tribute to company.1787 Tipu hanged himand annexed his Nad.1790 company drove Mysoreans and reinstated the Nair family and he turned out to be a French alliance and was arrested and sent as prisoner to Calicut in 1793.1797 reinstated in his nad and he managed it till 1805-06.
Logan says till 1805 how the Nair managed revenue is not known and from that date Mr Rickarts scheme called Janmi Pymaish of 981 ME was done .
6 Kottayam (Cottiot or Kottayath Raja of Puranaattu swaroopam).Logan thinks this is foreign (pura= outside)but it means porai or mountain tracts in Tamil.It is the Lords of Porai or Mountain Kings .It was originally under Kolathiri of which Kottaym is a branch.In 1780-82 & 1791-92 Pazassi Raja supported Tellichery settlements of Company in driving out Hyder and Tipu.In 1792 British cession of Malabar happened.Then Pychy (means the ancient King as well )the Raja turned against Company .He had a sort of independence to flee to Wynad,which was part of his land.In 1799 Seringapatnam fell and Wyanad cecession of company happened.This lead to a strong revolt.Till end of 1805 November (on 30th November the Raja died).Kottayam (excempting Wynad)contained :-
Kudali,
Pattannur
Chavassery
Veliyambra
Mulakkunnu
Kannavam
Manathana
Gannavam
Sivapuram
Palassi
Kandamkkunnu
Paduvilayi
Pinarayi
Nittur
Katirur
Kottayam.
In 1805 came under Janmi Pymaish .
7.Kadathanad
(part of Kolathunad formerly.Under thekke Ilankur or southern Yuvaraja/regent of Kolathiri) also called Badagara Vazhunnavar (Rulers of Vadakara /Northern land).This means the Southern part of the North Kolathiri (Goladri)ruled by the yuvaraja of the Northern Kolathiri Branch.
This branch belonged to the male lineage of Kolathiri.Consisted of Amsa of Kurumporainad(Small hilly land).
Aliyur
Muttungal
Eramala
Karthikapalli
Purameri
Edachery
Iringannur
Tuneri
Vellur
Parakadavu
Chekkiyad
Valayam
Velliyod
Kunnummal
Kavilumpara(belong to Pazhassi)
Kuttiyadi(belong to Pazhassi)
Velam
Cherapuram
Kottappalli
Ayancheri
Kadameri
Kuttipuram
Kummangod
Ponmeri
Arakkilad
Vadakara
Memunda
Palayad
Putuppanam
Maniyur
Tiruvallur
8,9,10,and 11 were Payyormala ,Payanad,Kurumporanad,and Tamarasseri.
Payyormala Nairs (Paleri,Avinyat,Kutali) ruled the amsa of: Kurumbranaad-
Paleri
Cheruvannur
Mepayur
Perambra
Kaayanna
Karayad
Iringhaat
(Pora as in Perambra stands for small hills and kaat for forests )
Payyanad belonged to ancient Kolam which Zamorin annexed.Has amsa of Kurumbranad as:-
Kilariyur
Mudadi
Pallikkara
Meladi
Viyyur
Arikkulam
Melur
Chemanchery
Tiruvangur
Kurumbranad proper belonged to Kottayam family.With amsams of kurumporainad and Calicut:
Kottur
Trikkutiseri
Naduvannur
Kavunthara
Iyyad
Pananghat
Nediyanad
Kilakkot
Madavur
Thamarasseri belonged to Kottayam swaroopam with amsams of Kurumporanad:
Ulleri
Kokkallur
Edakkara
Kunnatahra
Annasseri
Naduvallur
Nanminda
Nediyanad
Kudattayi
12,13 and 14 were Polanad which consisted of Vadakkumporam and Kilakkumporam ,Beypore or Northern Parappanad,and Pulavaayi.
Porlathiri or Polathalappathy were managing Polanaad under Kolathiri (The other end being protected by Punnathalapathy or Punnathur Raja of Thalappaly )Zamorin took it and made his head quarters at Kozhikoodam.It consists of:-
Elathur
Thalakulathur
Makkadachathamangalam
Kunnamangalam
Thamarasseri
Kuruvattur
Padinjanttum muri
Karannthur
Edakkad
Kacheri
Nagaram
Kasaba
Valayanadkottuli
Chevayur
Mayanad
Kovur
Perumanna
Peruvayal
Iringallur
Olavanna
Beypore or Northern Parappanad by Parappur family of ancient kings.consisted of
Panniyamkara
Cheruvannur
Beypore
Pulavayi was under Pulavayi Nayars who had relation to Kurumbranad family and also to Zamorin.They managed amsams in Calicut as:-
Kedavur
Thiruvambadi
Puttur
Nileswaram
Koduvally
Kanniparamba
Chulur
Manasseri
Pannikot
15.Southern Parappanad ,16 Ramnad 17 Cheranad 18 Eranad consists of entire Eranad (under walluvakonathiri first when the Chera ruled).
Southern Parappanad (parappur)had become nominal suzerain under Zamorin.
Their amsa were:-
Palanchannur
Mannur
Thenyippalam
Neduva
Vallikkunnu
Parappanangadi
Nannabra
Ramnad:- consisted of
Nalllur
Azhinjilam
Cherukava
Karad
Karumarakkad
Karippur
Chelembra
Cheranad :-
Vadakkumpuram
Valiyakunnu
Kattiparuthi
Aathavanad
Ummathur
Irimbilium(old Ilibhyam)
Parutur
Olakkara
Trikkulam
Koduvayur
Vengara
Kannamangalam
Urakam Melmuri
Puttur
Kottakkal
Indiannur
Valakkulam
Ernad consisted of:-
Mapparam
Chikkod
Urangattiri
Mambat
Nilambur
Kolattur
Nediyirippu
Kilmuri and melmuri
Porur
Vandur
Tiruvali
Trikkalangot
Karakunnu
Arimbra
Valluvambram
Irimbuli
Mancheri
Iruvetti
Kavannur
Chengara
Puliyakod
Kulimanna
Payyanad
Elankur
Ponmala
19 Walluvanad proper (Vellathiri) 20 Wlluvanad, 21 Nedunganad 22 Kavalapppara (under walluvanad taluk )
1976-77 Violent and irregular collection of revenue by Mysoreans .9Valluvakonathiri was the title of main branch of Chera /kolathiri who occupied Kudanad as Kudakkon in sangham age and had rights of Perumal and Gangadharakoil adhikari .Entire south Malabar was under his him.North under his 2nd reagent and the southern parts of kerala a svenad under third regent .Zamorin split his territory into Northern kolathunad and Walluvanad by conquering his kingdom. During Mysore conquest he had following amsa:-
Walluvanad proper:-
Kodur
Kuruva
Pallipuram
Mangada
Arakkuparamba
Chettanallur
Angadipuram
Perinthalmanna
Pulakkattiri
Valambur
Karyavattam
Nenmini
Melattur
Panga
Kolattur
Kuruvambalam
Pulamanthol
Elankulam
Vellattur
Kottpadam
Arakurissi
Thachambara
Anamangad
Paral
Chembraasseri
Pandikkad
Walluvanad under Zamorin:-
Tuvur
Tiruvalamkunnu
Tenkara
Kumaramputtur
Karimpula
Thachanattukara
Aziparamba
Nedunganad (under zamorin) which was originally in walluvanad :-
Elambulasseri
Vellinezhi
Srikrishnapuram
Kadampazhipuram
Kalladikod
Vadakkumpuram
Muttedath madambi
Trikkaderi
Chalavara
Cherpulasseri
Naduvattam karalmanna
Kulukkalaur
Chundampetta
Vilayur
Pulasseri
Naduvattom
Mututala
Perumudiyur
Netirimangalam
Pallipuram
Kalladipatta
Vallapuzha
Kottakurissi
Eledath madamba
Chunanghat
Mulanyur
Perur
Kavalappara under Nair chief(Had alliance with Cochin Raja and Zamorin).This also belongs to walluvanad
Mundakodkurissi
Panamanna
Kunathara
Karakkad
Kulappalli
Mundamukha
Wetland revenew in Walluvanad in 1776-77 (Huzur nikuthi assessed by Mohidin Muppan and Hydros kutty Mooppan)at commutation rates:-
Nads %of paatam as nikuthivittu(assessed seed) Commutation rate to money /1000 Macleod seer
Vellathiri(walluvanad proper) 10 125.0.0
Walluvanad 10 125.0.0
Nedunganad .
In 89 desams
In 9 desams 10
100.0.0
111.1.9 1/3
Kavalappara 10 100.0.0
Arshad Beg Khan reduction to 20 %
Tipu’s increase to 12 ½ %.for collection charges (these were done to garden lands also)
Garden lands customary pattom converted to assessment in cash:-
Coconuts 7.8.0 /1000 nuts
Betelnuts 0.4.0 /1000 nuts
Jack 0.4.0 /tree
Miscellaneous:-
1976-77:-Ellu as niguthi vithu 30% at old rate of ½ veerarayan panam (2 anna)/local para(10 seer).commuted to 12 ½ per /1000 Macleod seer.
1796-97 to 1800 -1801 .by Mr Stevens the collector.
1801-02 Major Macleod to 20 % of gross produce commuted as Rs 16.5.2 ¾
1815 modan assessment in some parts consolidated with that of wetlands.1801-02 janma fixed .If assessment exceeded janma no action,and if it is less ,then assessments raised increasing commutation rate to level of the janma demanded for that year.
1801-02 walluvanad and Nedunganad fixed as 20 % .In some parts as Rs 19.0 .9 1/7th others as 16.5.2 ¾
Kavalappara 1776-78 1/4th of old veerarayan panam as niguthivithu of local para.On wetlands was increased to 4- 4 ½ panam.commutation rate on wetlands raised from Rs 100 to 106.4.0 per 1000 Macleod seer.On this collection charge extra also levied.1790-01 to 1795-96 revised assessment under company.20 % taken from farmers and remaining 10 % from janmis.On the 20 % of produce a rate fixed as 1 fanam 5 1/3 anna per 2 para (20 seer)or 1 ½ para (15 seer)per fanam ,or Rs 16.10.8/1000 Macleod seer.
Commutation rate of ellu :-
1776-77 to 1789-90 Rs 37 ½ /1000 Macleod seer
1790-91 to 1795-96 Rs 50-62 ½
1801-1802 Rs 62 ½
23 Palghat(Vadamalappuram) 24 Thenmalappuram and 25 naduvattom(All three under Palghat Raja/old Kolathiri /Aranghottu swaroopam )Walluvanad Raja as sovereign .Palghat Raja is called Kongu Chera and their territory is Kongudesa.Kaaavalpanam here and at Naduvattom for keeping a defence force against invasions from Mysore .It was only1/4th veerarayan panam /local para 10 seer in a single crop.Then a rakshabhogan of 12000 veerarayan panam annually from the revenue of the country.After Hyders conquest Palghat Rajas nephew ruled naduvattom as Hyders regent.
Vadamalappuram:-((Northern districts of Palghat beyond the Vadamala
?
Kongad
Mundur
Kavalpad
Akattethara
Puthusseri
Elappalli
Polpalli
Pallatheri
Puttur
Koppam
Yakkaravadakkumthara
Kodunthirappally
Edathara
Kilakkumpuram
Tadukkasseri
Mattur
Pallanchahanur
Kannadi
Kinasseri
Thiruvalathur
Palattulli
Thenmalappuram(Southern Palghat beyond Thenmala)
Chulanur
Vadakkethara
Kattusseri
Kavasseri
Tarur
Kannanurpattola
Ayakkad
Mangalam
Vadakkancherry
Chittilancherry
Naduvattom(under Zamorin)
Kottaya(I)
Mangara
Kuttanur
Kulalmannam
Vilayanchathanur
Tenkurissi
Tanisseri
Peruvenba
Koduvayur
Kakkayur
Vilayannur
Manynyalur
Erimayur
Kunisseri
Pallavur
Kudallur
Pallassana
Vadavannur
Kilakkethara
Padinjarethara
Vattekad
Pananghattiri
Muthalamada
1765-66 Ittikombi Achan nephew of Palghat Raja as agent of Hyder increased revenew to one old veerarayan panam per para (10 seer)
1773-74:-Sullayad Khan (Darogha sahib) Diwan,raised to 1 ½ para /10 seer of seedland .Following complaints he reduced it in certain areas as :-when land yield 5 para(50 seer)of paattam for each para(10 seer)of seed sown rate maintained.If less paattam is yielded he maintained the rate but assessed it on proportionately smaller quantity seed eg:-
10 para of seed-land yielding 50 para pattam entered into accounts as 10 para.
‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’40 ‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’8’’’’
‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’30’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’6’’’’
‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’20’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’4’’
Of these 10,8,6,4 para respectively he assessed his rate of 1 ½ panam per para.Thus tehse were factitious measures of assessment quite unconnected with quantity of grain required to sow the land.The rate of assessment was 20 % converted to money Rs 53.9.1 5/7 per 1000 Macleod seer.In some nads it was more heavy.(southern part)In Vadamalappuram modanand ellu assessed at 8 anna per head on all persons payingwet land assessment .This increased also the wet land assessment of that nad.
1781-82 Palghat transferred from Mysore Kutchery of Calicut to Seringapatam.Tipu’s increase of 12 ½ % affected the wet lands of these lands.
In Darogha sahib time Ittikombi Achans Parbuthy Menon (accountant)and 2 kolkars (peon)in each desam to collect revenue and for payment of them additional tax of 5 %.Company increased it to 10 %
Garden land under Mysore Govt:-no tax as per custom.
1801-02:-First time tax on garden produce by Macleod.
1 veerarayan panam on 8 productive coconut trees
1 ‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’ 24’’’’’’’’’’’’’betelnut trees
1’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’4’’’’’’’’’’’’’’jack trees
¾ ‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’each’’’’’’’’’’pepervine.
+10 % more for collection charges.
From 62 ¼ %of pattam on fruityielding trees of average 10 nuts /tree at commutation rate 9.6.0 /1000 nuts to,
About 67 17/19 % at rate of Rs 8.12.0 /1000 nuts for coconuts –variable.
For betel nuts vary from 11 anna per 1000 nuts to 10 anna /1000 nuts at 74 to 81 % rate.
4 anna and 6 pie on each jack tree as 25 % rate.
Modan and ellu was assessed by Mysore only in Thenmalappuram and the assessment was not the produce or rent but at rate of 2 old veerarayan panam (8 anna 0per individual paying wet land revenue.
26 Vettathu nad
(Vettathu Raja last was till 24th May 1793 ) and after that Zamorin .The amsams of Ponnani :-
Pariyapuram
Rayirimangalam
Olur
Kalpakanchery
Melmuri
Anantavur
Kanmanam
Ponmundam
Tanalur
Niramaruthur
Talakkad
Vettam
Pachattiri
Mangalam
Trikkandiyur
Iringavur
Klari
Chennara
Tripranghod
Pallipuram
Purattur
1777 Ramalingapillai ,agent of Hyder for introducing Huzur nikuthy assessed whole taluk .
1 local para (io seer)of nikuthivithu for every para of paattam (25%).To it a tax of 3 old veerarayan panam (75 Rs /1000 Macleod seer)
Mr Graeme assessed:- paattam varied in different desams as nikuthy vithu .
In 65 desams 25 %
38 desam 22 ½
8 desam 20 %
7 desam 16 ½ %at the uniform rate of Rs 75/1000 Macleod seers.
1782-83 Arshad Beg Khan severity increased.Two of his subordinates (Venkappa and Venkaji)levied additional collection charge of 15 %.Tipu’s increase to 12 ½ % affected the entire nad.
1790-91 to 1793-94. full revenue at this rate was collected and only very little balance remained in 1800-01.
1801-03 Macleods survey .An increased revenue resulted in a rebellion.Mr Rickarts reverted to old settlement in 1802-03.
1803-04 Mr Warden increased 1/4th of the assessment fixed by Macleod but it did not affect the principles of the settlement in force.To this was superceded 15% charge of collection.
Garden lands
Revenue introduced in 1777-78 Ramalingapillai – about 20 %
Coconut Rs 7.8.0/1000 nuts
Betelnuts Rs 0.4.0
Jacks 0.4.0/tree
Tipus 12 ½ % applied to garden lands also.
1790-94
Full assessment of this rate was completely revived
1801-02 Macleod increased rate as on wetlands and same reforms of Rickarts and Warden followed.
Establishment charge was 15 % .
Modans –MCLEOD in 62 desams 20 % of gross produce as paattam was taken .Of this 25 % (to say 5%of gross produce ) taken as assessment and commuted at rate of Rs 85.11.5 1/7 /1000 Macleod seers
In 7 desams every para of seed sown assessed at 1 new veerarayanpanam .Assuming the outturn to be fiveold the assessment would be 20 % of gross produce valued at Rs 28.9.1 5/7 /1000 Macleod seer
In 62 desam crop further assessed at 15 % for collection charges and in 10 desams as 10 %.
After 1801-02 Mysore principles continued as 20 % of gross produce at current market rate.
Ellu is not much cultivated and hence not assessed.
27 Kutanad and 28 chawkad and Chetwai.(Zamorin except on island of Chetwai island in Taluk of Ponaani)
Limits of Chetwai island(under Dutch from 1717 ,in 1776 by Hyder Ali.In 1790 to the company )
Vadanappalli
Nattika
Pallipuram
Edathiruthy
Kaipamangalam
Pappinivattom
Pananghat
Kudanad and Chowghat and Chetwa in Ponani Taluk.
Kudanad (under zamorin)
Tavanur
Kaaladi
Kodanad
Melattur
Chekkod
Anakkara
Kilmuri
Pottanur
Iswaramangalam
Pallapuram
Ponnani
Kanynyiramukku
Edappal
Vattamkulam
Kumaranallur
Kotachira
Nagalasseri
Thirumittakod
Otalur
Kapppur
Alanghod
Pallikkara
Eramangalam
Vayilathur
Chawkad and Chetwazamorin)
Veliangod
Ayirur
Kadikkad
Punnayur
Edakkaliyur
Palayur
Guruvayur
Iringapuram
Anankara
Brahmankulam (Chaattukulam )present Arthaat
Mullasseri
Venkidangu
Chavakkad
Orumanayur
Vadanappalli
Nattika
Pallipuram
Edathiruthi
Kaipamangalam
Pappinivattom
Pananghat
1765-66 Hyder’s visit to these 3 nads ,and his agents and his tributaries ,the Coimbatore Raja MahaDeo Raj called Madhavan in Malabar.After that he managed the country till 1767-68 and collectedirregular taxes ,and violent contributins both on personal and the real property of inhabitants.
1767-68 till 1773 again under zamorin.
1773 Chunder Raw and Sreenivas Row came with troops and rested the country from Zamorin .The nads were rendered to Mohadin Moopan and hydros kutty by them who collected 100 % 0f paaattam.they imposed further contributions and seized personal property.Finding that this also failed they carried individuals to Seringapattanam .
They returned again in 1777-78 and started collecting Huzzur nikuthy upon an actual reaping and measuring of the crop ,takig 2/3rds of gross produce as Govt share on rice lands and leaving 1/3rd to cultivator.The people fled and lands lay uncultivated .
Then came Ramalingapillay under orders of Hyder Ali and made survey but the amount collected fell short of Huzzur nikuthy
1779-80 Jumien subedar was sent by Hyder Ali since people asked for equalization of assessment .
He ascertained the Landlords rent as Mudalalintra paattam (headmans rent)as follows:-
In 282 desam 60 % at Rs 31.4.0 /1000 Macleod seer
In 24 desams 60 % Rs 25.0.0/1000’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’
To this added 10 % as Chelluvari (collection charge)
1781-82 British possession for a short time .They restored the old Raja to manage it .Arshad Beg Khans and Tipus 12 /2 % affected wetlands.
1785-86 Krishna Achari appointed by Arshad Beg Khan to manage .He added 2/16 of an old veerarayan panam or 12 ½ % to the jama(demand)under designation Hetcha nighuthy.
1790-91 Company allowed the Rajas to maintain the Nad .Chetwai island made over to management of Raja of Cochin who managed it till 1801 with a short interruption .He paid a revenue of Rs 40000 /annnum to company.
1791-92 3/4th and 1792-93 6/10th of old jama was collected in the Nads except Chetwai island.
1793 -94 company’s servants and Raja together collected full jama on all cultivated lands and added another 10 % for charge of collection.This continued till 1799-1800.
1800-01 Mr Drummond ,subcollector increased by adding an assessment on the uncultivated lands.
1801-02 Jama regulated by Major Macleod survey .Rickarts reverted to that of 1800-01.In some places Macleods collection remained.
Garden lands:-
Huzur nikuthy principles applied.100 % of pattam taken at customary rates usual between janmi and ryots which rates were as usual in South Malabar.
Coconuts Rs 7.8.0/1000 nuts
Betelnuts o.4.0/.1000 nuts
Jacks 0.4.0/tree
Considerably below market price.
Arshad khan 20 % reduction
Mysore and the company imposed 10 %(20 % in all) as colletion charge
Hecha nikuthy of Krishna Achari or a further addition of 12 ½ imposed on gardens
Macleods increase in 1801-02 was not removed
No assessment on Modan aand ellu the cultivation being inconsiderable.
Retrospective summary and method adopted for working out:-Following Major Macleods illadvised innovations in 1803 ,Mr Rickarts to remedy inequalities of assessment and to fix principles of new assessment had a meeting of chief janmis convened in Calicut and consulting their opinion recommended a scheme in July 1st 1803 .This proclamation published on 21st July 1805 is given in Volume 2 of Mlabar Manual as appendix No XV.Malabar Rajas,Head Nambuthiris and Mukhyasthans were made tounderstand that a unified system has to be worked out .The general points agreed upon were :
1 On wetlands of rice fields ,deduce from gross produce the seed and exactly the same quantity for expenses of cultivation .And then alott 1/3rd of what remains as kolllulabham (Plough profit) for the Kudian who does agriculture.The residue of paattam is divided in a proportion of 6/10 to the Govt and 4/10 to Janmakkar.
2Parambu or orchard land :-1/3rd of coconut,betelnut and jacktre produce is sufficient for the Kudiyan and the remainder or paattam can be equally divided between Govt and Janmakkar.
3.Dry grain land (which is scantily cultivated in Malabar)Govt can take ½ of the Janamkkar varam on what is actually cultivated durng the year.
The assessment of pepper produce was to be assessed later.
This proclamationwas signed in 1805 by T.Warden,the principal collector.
Illustration:-Suppose quantity of seed sown is 5 para and the outturn multiple is with 15 the gross produce will be 75 para.
From this 5 para for seed ,and 5 para for maintainance of the kudian is given.Thus remaining is 65 para.From this 1/3rd is as the profit of cultivator again given to Kudian which is 21 2/3 .The remaining is 43 1/3 as paattam.Of this 60 % taken by British Govt (26 para .)and janmakkars or landlords get 40 % of 43 1/3 para or 17 1/3 para .
Commute what each gets(Page 665 vol 2 Logan)for wet lands of paddy:-
Seed 5 para
Expense of cultivation for kudian 5 para
Kudians profit 21 2/3 para
British Govts paattam 26 para
Janmakkaran(LandLord paattam) 17 1/3 para.
The lowest is for the janmakkarar .So there had been no foulplay from the Landlords who had signed the agreement with the British.And Kudians were not the sufferers .
Garden lands :-
Coconuts and arecanuts areas had paattam divided as two halves and both Govt and landlord got equal share and Govt share was commuted to money value
Gross produce 100 nuts
Cultivators share 1/3rd 33 ½
Remainder ,is share as paattam 66 ½
50 % to Govt 33 1/3
50 % to Janmi/landlord 33 1/3rd
So all the three gets equal share of 33 ½ and 33 1/3 rd .
Jack tree:-same principle adopted as 50 % pattam toGovt and Janmi..The standard share of British Govt when commuted to money was 60 % for both wetland and garden land.
This method of calculation was called the Vilachal Meni paattam.
The 2/3rd produce in wetlands was ascertained in a certain manner.For coconut and arecanut ,the 2/3rd of the produce was in nuts only.
How this is different from two other paattams of the land?(Verum paattam and Nikuthi paattam)
Verumpaattam:- The actual rent from Ryots for janmis.whatwa sits ratio to gross and net produce?The British collectors thought the janmis were giving false accounts of the paattam.Mr Graemes proposals and the Govt policies to fix it lead to collisions and rebellions like Mapilla fanatical outrages and other evils(Logan vol 1 .page 667).The rent paid by intermediaries,and rent paid through intermediaries by sub-tenants were not distinguished by the reformers.Ryots directly to janmi,intermediary kaanakkar to janmi were there.
On wet lands verumpattam varied from 10 %of average available gross produce.(in places where accidents and los are likely to happen)to 33 or 45 and as high as 50 % when the settlement with tenant is only for one year.The word available meant customary 20 % of gross produce for the sake of expenses for reaping,threshing,winnowing ,fee for carpenters ,smiths,other professional who make instruments,and for janmam rights of the janmi.This reduction of 20 % did not come into Mr Graemes calculations .
For garden lands verumpatam was balance of produce in nuts after deducting for cultivators share of 20 %.in North Malabar and 33 ½ in south Mlabar.The real share in money was Rs 20 and Rs 25 on 10000 nuts.The husk,from which coir is made,leaves for thatching,branches,wood etc were cultivators share of profit.(labham) and excluded from any estimate of produce in fixing verumpaattam.
Jack trees was estimated of its money value of produce.Money value depends upon a market nearby .The money value is judged roughly by inspection.Many trees had a value of 1 ppanam of paattam.In some places een less.Thereofre verumpattam is only 1/3rd of gross produce.
Nikuthi paattam(Mysorean tax)
Mr Graeme found that the records of Mysoreans mention nikuthy vithu but do not mention the proportion of it to gross or net produce.He gathered information from inhabitants of Calicut Nad and from south Malabar nads and then its proportion in Srirangapaataanm records.The people said that the tax thus collected was not sent by Sirdar Khan to Srirangapatanam.The verumpattam was either concealed or understated by the Mysorean officers owing to favour,intrigue or local causes.This pattam extended to only Nads where there was Huzur Nikuthy and in them to both wet and garden lands.It represented no fixed share of the produce in kind,but the share in kind ,commuted to money at fixed rates.
Then in 1805 the tax regulation of British was like this:-
Nad 1,5,and 6 partly vilachal meni paattam and partly verum paattam both on wet and garden lands.
Nad 2,3,4,7,of garden lands and wetlands and Nad 23,24,25,27 & 28, on wetlands Verumpaattam
Nad 8-22 nd 26 on both wet land and garden land and in Nad 27,28 on garden lands Nighuthi paattam.
23,24,25 Nads garden land assessment was taken as shares of vilahal meni paattam for comparison.
This was the comparative assessment made in 1805 by British administration.On this principle a detailed table was prepared and this is given in Logans Manual which serves as a basic for the British India reforms,Mysore reforms and the actual custom of the land before these foreign regimes.
The British thought that the tax on North Malabar in Misellaneous land wa more than the Souh Malabar (they didn’t realize the fact that the South Mlabar is the place where rice in KOl wetlands is more andmiscellaneous grains are not there much I South Malabar and hence the disparity).But they also noticed though heavier than South Malabar the ta was less oppressive to North Malabar inhabitants individually.(The cost of cultivation as well as net and gross produce of paddy is more in South Kol lands and hence when even a slightest tax increase is made it becomes oppressive to kol field cultivators).
Position of the Ryot or the actual cultivator in Malabar as in Logans Manual:-
The Malabar Ryotwari was different from what Sir Thomas Munroe understood.His definition was as follows:- Labourer,farmer and landlord were united in the ryot.Ryot could not have subtenants as long as Govt wastelands of good quality existed for any one to cultivate .The laws of inheritance in force in eastern districts have constant tendencyto break up property and cause subdivision of landed estates (which is detrimental to co-operative ricefarming).
In Malabar it was not a ryotwari of this type.
1Suppose there is no wasteland in conveneient reach ,and all land is cultivated
2.suppose the waste land exist in convenient reach but is property of a private person and not of state
3.suppose laws of inheritance directly tended to keep property together
4.The clas of labourer,farmer,landlord were distinct and separate by their professional functions .
It cannot be a Ryotwari of Sir Thomas Munroes definition.Malabar thus was not a ryotwari of that type.
Looking at it from another point of view the issue of whether the Zamindar or the farmer should pay the Governemnt tax to British /Mysorean Govt .
Then how did it become a ryotwari?Logan writes thatunder the terror of Hyder Aliand his son Tipu Sultan who prevented the Brahmin,and Nair landlords (whom they never trusted) to collect tax and entrusting itto Mohammaedans cutcheris of new sovereigns.
The new lands cultivated (wastelands converted to cultivated fields) ,the farmers soon become proprietors and drop character of labourer and farmer and become landlords.Thus Thomas Munroes ryotwari was not a permanent one .A state of affairs was brought about in them after some time just as that existed in Malabar from the very first.
Private property in land existed already in Canara and Malabar (which were part of one land,Kerala under Kolathiri Valluvakonathiry/chera king).After Dec 16th 1818 ,British introduced a intermediate class (Zamindar/Moottahdars)between crown and janmakkars .By 5th January 1818 the existing system of revenue was abolished and Ryotwari introduced by a board of revenue.
They gave instructions to British collectors that the new system wanted to restore landed property,convert all bad farms of the Tamil country to good estates,and landholders to landlords.The only districts classes as ryotwari were Malabar,Canara,Coimbatore,Madura and Dindigul.(Except Madura and Dindigul all belong to old Chera country).All others were managed by zamindars and under village lease systems.
The board of revenue defined “ That particular class only among them(the cultivators of the soil)who employ ,superintentend and sometimes assist the labourer,and who are everywhere the farmers of the country ,the creators and payers of land revenue.”They also defined rights of ryots in Malaabar and mistakenly treated the rights of janmi,kanakkar and paaattakar as equivalent to the ryot .many of the janmi,kaanakkar and some paattakar had no title as cultivators or farmers,or creators or payers of land revenue.The board took the three class as proprietors,mortgages and tenants .There existed in Mlabar other classes besides the ryots (landlords entitled to rent from under tenants,intermediaries liable to pay rent to landlords ,to receive rent from under tenants,etc).The board classified the ryot as the actual cultivator of soil,as proprietor,farmer or labourer.he by his industry and skill pay the Govt revenue and contributes to general welfare of state.All others having interests in the land were mere investors of their money.The mistake made in 1818 (in Malabar)was to drop the actual cultivator out of sight and to substitute for him an ideal ryot.
12th December Board of directors reviewing a letter from Board of revenue declared that the ancient systems in Malabar is extremely defective.They said that the accounts of Mlabar Rajas were different from other parts of India ,and should be received with caution and distrust.The rights in Mlabar and rest of India is so different regarding property rights ,they found.(The land as property f God,of temples,and to king as a protector still prevailed there but in rest of Idia it was not so).They declared on principle of a unified civil code” that Malabar was in no way singular to rest of India “and they wanted to make it like rest of India and they succeeded in this.Thus what existed in North India ,as a result of repeated attacks from outsiders,and due to changes by repeated sociopolitical changes under threat of invasions and political upheavals came into existence in Malabar ,suddenly without any need (since there was no attack ) with British rule.What the Afghan and Mughal and other attacks had done to North India was done to Mlabar by British without any attack or killing ,by rulemaking .(What the condition of the lowlying wetlands and its cultivation problems and how they are different from rest of India was unknown to them ).After Thomas Munroes repot on such inequalities in Mlabar,on 4th July 1817,The Govt with Thomas Munroe at its head reported that they are dissatisfied with the peculiar conditions in Mlabar .The collector had reported that there 150,000 occupants in Mlabar (including morgagees) and they assumed more than that may be involved in actual cultivation .And all revenue and information they obtained was of the Rajas and landlords and they suspected some foulplay .They wanted to know whether these 150000 occupants are cultivating the lands immeadiatetly by slaves,hired servants,or are there a class of inferior tenants to whom they sublet a portion of lands etc.On 24th August 1822 ,Collector Vaughan reported which is very important.He said ,there is no need for interfering the protection of undertenants etc ,since people of all castes and religion engaged in agriculture exactly as they felt inclined,and slaves too were under protection of the law in Malabar.But the board of Directors depended upon Mr Graemes report and on 18th May 1825 took measures accordingly.
They reported:-The intermediate class of People in Malabar is enjoying a part of rent which should come to Govt .Such people who subsist on land without cultivating t are numerous in Malabar.
Their anxiety was regarding the artisans and other military class,seafaring class etc who also get a share of the food cultivated by the community as a whole .The service class were part of society,including the office bearers like kanakar,astrologer /materiologist/assessor of crops etc and all were getting shares .When British collectors,accountants,other officials replaced them ,giving a share of food (which should come to British Govt)became a nuisance to Governement.Thus the entire traditional system of co-operative farming best suited for Kol puncha wetlands of South Malabar was first destroyed by the individual property rights,and landlord system under Governement control.We still follow it ,but under our own Governement .
Subsequent land revenue history:-
21st July 1805 Mr Warden sends notice to all proprietors of land to get details of landed property:
1.To obtain name of every field in the country for serving as a ground for actual survey
2.To get accurate numerical account of every assessable tree ,to regulate garden assessments
The statements thus obtained are known as Janmi Pymaish of 981 ME (1805-06).
3.Arranged subcollectors to classify soil in every Taluk toascertain actual produce.
4.Laborious task of surveying wetlands.The surveyors were all outsiders and enterd duty in year 1806. They completed task with four years.
The accounts thus produced is known as Alavu Pymash 1806-10.(Hinduvi Pymash asit is written by a Maharashtriyan).Considered to be the best reliable accounts .
Proclamation of July 21st 1805 mentioned earlier was after this report .
Till that time revenue arrears never occurred in Malabar and people were all satisfied.But suddenly people ,including landowners could not pay rent ,and landlords could not help them in need and every one thought the assessment oppressive.In 1817 when Thomas Monroe visited he heard the grievances (though the assessments were very moderate).The balance of revenue realized was small ,but people affected were large by the moderate assessment of the new Governement.
10th Feb 1818 ,Mr Graeme ,a judge appointed to introduce a new system of police and magistracy and to produce improvements on revenue administration.
14th Janaury 1822 he completes his work.His proposals:-
The most important is that on wetlands the 60% agreed upon as by proclamation of 1805 was on vilachal meni paattam and this was abolished and instead 65% of actual rent (as verumpaattam)is the company’s share.Mr Graemes proposal approved by Munroe(16th July 1822)because they thougt the company has a rightful share of 65 % and even thenthere is a balance of Rs 1,39,922 to be given to the Company which the people should pay .(That is a 13 % reduction of what they actually should get is still not paid by people and the people were considered in debt )
In garden lands 50 % of paattam was fixed .But Mr Rickharts had reported that people (janmis)of North Malabar enjoy 80 % produce of nuts from coconut,arecanut and 80 % of money paattam from jacks but in South Mlabar only 66 2/3 % of the same.Mr Rickharts had followed the South Mlabar distribution because entire North Mlabar at that time (except the Chulali Nambiar) was in revolt against the British due to the reforms.Mr Graeme said the North Mlabar plan to be followed inNorth and South Mlabar plan in south.Thus the plan was worked out as follows:-
1.The janmi pymash accounts the total number of tres that existed in 1805
2.Deduct all trees that are unproductive ,or too young to bear fruit
3.A further deduction (at 20%)for trees at that time productive,but had gone out of bearing since.
4.The number of young trees(75%)had come into bearing within that period.
5.Thus arrived at actually reproducing trees.
6.Also number of unproductive trees
7.From number of unproductive trees deducted the number ( 20 % )which he thought might be cut down or removed when his rates per tree came to be applied for all productive trees.
8.Thus arrived at number of unproductive trees to be dealt with when the assessment came to be made .
9.Added the number of unproductive trees thus arrived at tonumber of productive trees and found the total number of full grown trees at the time of the assessment.
10.Then applied his rates of gross produce in nuts per tree ascertained from Janmi pymash accounts of 1805 -6 to number of productive trees present and obtained the gross produce in nuts.
11.To this gross produce of nuts applied his locally ascertained prices of produce and money value of gross produce of those trees.
12.Applying money value of the gross produce the principles mentioned above for North and South Mlabar ,he made a customary paattam rent for arecanut and coconut gardens .
13.Applied the money paattam rates obtained from janmi pymash accounts to number of productive jack trees.
14.He found that what the Govt share at 50% of the customary pattern was on all trees.
15.Then he divided the Govt share of customary pattam which he expected to find standing at time of assessment.His rate for trees he decided to apply for all standing trees except those which were too young to bear fruits.These rates he proposed should not be altered for 12 years.Thus Mr Graeme said the collected revenue falls short by 7 % of what is the actual revenue.
Miscellaneous Modam lands:- Greame proposed the same rate as existed (20%)for South Mlabar.Sir Thomas Munroe accepted except the clause for cutting down old fruitbearing trees .Mr Graeme came again to Malabar to revise the revenue establishment,to revise garden assessment,and to revise wet land assessment.He did not complete his work and left in May 20th 1823 leaving thejob to Mr Vaughan.He was given a sketch of his plans to be followed.These plan of operations Vaughan was to carry out.
What where the plans of operations of Graeme?
1,Obtain from people themselves the number of trees in each garden and produce of the same
2.inspect them and correct if people have given false reports
3.When satisfied with correctness of tax returns,calculate resultingproduce in gross .Take 1/3rd as Govt share in South Malabar.This share to be commuted to money at fixed market rates of produce which he had ascertained himself.
4.Arrive at total assessment to be imposed on each village.
5.Communicate to people the gross assessment thus fixed,allow them to distribute it over all trees in all gardens of village ,which were divided for this purpose into Aaattu veppu(riverside,low-lying ,damp,fruitful gardens) which were of 2 subtypes and Karaveppu(on highlying ,less productive locality ) which were of 3 classes.
6.His aim was to obtain a fixed rate of each tree depending upon its locality 9either aattuveppu or karaveppu).
7.If rates of assessment fell short of total assessment made,deficiency was made good byincreaing rates first in AAttuveppu trees and then on karaveppu.9the rate raised on trees in the best class gardens).If such a fixed rate is put on each tree of village,there is no need further to calculate gross produce of individual gardens which was difficult .
8 Aaattuveppu and karaveppu rates differ.Karaveppu need more care ,more expenditure.And give small produce than lowlying areas.But both his classification and his assessment were incorrect in many places ,Logan points out(page 689)
1824-25 Mr Vaughans survey was completed and put in operation.It was hasily done and dissatisfactions arose.It rapidly increased.On 28th February 1826,Mr Sheffield took charge of the district and in March went to Thalachery,organized survey of 5 amsams(village)of Kottayam Taluk,whose people were the first to raise in revolt.Then he took up 21 villages in Kadathanad,the whole of Kurumbranad,22 desceding villages of Calicut Taluk,70 gardens in PuluvaayiNaad,one amsam in Ernad,2 in Nedunganad increasing or decreasing the assessment he though necessary in each place. In 1827-28 the operations were put in practice in Kurumbranad ,in Calicut in 1828-29,Kadathanad and Kottayanm in 1829-30.
Lands along Mahe river and Dharmapattanam island were still too high,for the clamour of the people had not ceased there and revenue was collected with much difficulty.From 1829-30 to 1840-41 survey continued and anincrease of revenue of Rs 18,849 instead of the 7 % deficiency was imposed as extra for deficit revenue which Mr Graeme anticipated.The actual amount thus collected at a small rate was Rs 2,79,896 which was too high for people but which Govt thought only a small increase.
The revision of 12 years was there in the scheme.In 1843-44 Mr Conolly pointed out that no fixed periods of revision can be named .In 1850-52 there were general complaints of overassessment and entire Kurumbranad Taluk was resurveyed.Only a decrease of Rs 366 was allowed.1854 Conolly said there are losses to Govt and resurvey ids needed.In 1858 Mr Grant said the loss was due to misfortunes and the favourable seasons have made it balanced and no resurvey needed.
Wet lands assessment schemes:-
The assessment of wetlands did not progress o fast.Mr Robinsons letter to Board of Revenue 5th August 1857 :- Said that there is a plague spot in survey of wet rice lands .He suspected the proprietors were not trustworthy.The Desam adhikaris are backward in survey of ricefields and do not pay attention to orders.They are lukewarm to the cause.Their accounts are false and beyond description.They conceal deed,and makes it impossible to ascertain the resources of this country.In letter dt 3rd June Mr Vaughan speaks of his utter despair of being able to prepare any returns within reasonable time and hopelessness of getting any true deeds done through desaadhikaaris.Ryots also are defeating every cause .The country teemed with fictitious deeds ,he wrote.He thought all of themwere making profits defeating the British Governement (It is surprising with all their justice ,they could not see that it was they who were doing that at the expenseof those poor people and their protectors the traditional systems etc).
Special and singular provisions and rewards were proclaimed for true informants and penalties for frauds.Forfeiture of concealed land was threatened.If fraud is found assessment of full amount rent was extracted.What did these collusions did on morals of people ?On 12th October 1824 Mr Vaughan notes ,that this lead to an enormous number of feuds and disputes(vyavahara)among the people and suits beyond calculation in civil courts.Thus the first seeds of disbelief and quarrels were sown among the peaceful people who were good farmers and had a good system of revenue and barter for self sustenance and extra income from trade and commerse .9TH June 1825 he reported that there is total failure from local people to fulfil promises made by them that true accounts and correct returns wil be paid and scheme of Mr Graeme has failed after two years of its operation.Another 5 -6 years continued with this effort and the Utopean dream died by its own corruption but Indian people had lost their habit of respecting each other and their dharma and had become mercenaries and breakers of their longlasting co-operative agroeconomical farming societies .
Wet land survey was postponed till garden survey ended .meanwhile price of produce rose ,and revenue came easily and the need of survey did not crop up because of enough money for Governement.In 1832-33 Govt felt necessity of revenue accounts .Holdings ahd changed sizes and principles of assessments changed.The good land was assessed at low rate and bad land at higher rate .To remedy the inequaities a plan called Pukil Vivaram accounts was prepared.The heads of villages had to be entrusted with this account preparation again.th August 1857 Robinson call it the Desadhikary Pymash with no guarantee for accuracy or fidelity(To Govt).In 1843 when an attaempt was made to read them (Kulawar chitta or Individual account) they had been declared worthless .Mr Conolly at once stopped spending money on it.Mr Robinson expressed his viewsabout pukil vaaraam accounts that they were not worth examining.He suggested an only solution for te confusion to take as base the 1806-10 Alavu Paattam(pymash)on wetlands as it existed in 1800 -01 and was slightly modified in North Malabar only with the janmi pymash 981 ME 1805-06.Robinsons proposal was related to wetlands exclusively(Board proceedings 1863November 12th ).
A uniform rate of assessment /acre on area cultivated annually of 12 Anna was fixed in 1861 November.Rate per 1000 Maleod seers the commuted amount in money in 1861 in the 8 Taluks were as follows:-
TALUK RICE(Rs .Anna.Pai) ELLU(Rs .Anna.Pai)
Chirakkal 21.14.5
22.2.9 62.12.9
73.3.8
Kottayam 24.7.3 78.7.4
Kurumbranad 25.14.3
24.12.8 75.0.0
60.9.0
Kozhikod 20.8.8 76.6.11
Eranad 15.10.9
19.14.8 52.11.8
51.1.2
Walluvanad 12.4.3
14.2.2 52.0.0
49.13.4
Palakkad 14.3.6
14.10.0 55.8.10
48.14.4
Ponnani 14.12.5
15.3.10
20.13.4 74.1.2
57.13.7
50.10.9
Assuming Govt shares as 1/5thof gross produce ,per acre they got a commutation rate of Rs 17.11.11 per 1000 Macleod seer (for paddy)and Rs 63.15.8 for Ellu .From 1805-1861 no revision was made on Punam krishi lands.
How Mr Sheffield in 1827-28 made assessments on Modal lands:-
1.Classified all lands into three qualities according to productive powers
1st class yield outturn multiple of from 6 18/64 to 4 43/64 the quantity of seed sown.
2nd class yielding from 4 26/64 to 3 16/64
3rd class yielding 3 15/64 to 2 9/64
2.For each class a fair and moderate quantity of seed was assumed as necessary for 100 square kols(chathurasra kol)of land
3.Land was then measured and its square contents found
4. The square kols X quantity of seed X outturn multiple =Gross produce
5 Government share =1/5th or 20 %.of gross produce.
6.This was commuted into money assessment of rates fixed for each Taluk with reference to average local prices.
When he tried to do this extensive abandonment of cultivation happened in Ernad Taluk and he himself had to admit that his rates of commutation were exorbitant and arbitrary and had to abandon it.
For Punam,when money rates per acre vary from 8 anna to 12 anna were imposed in 1861 ,it was :-
10 Anna in old Kavayi Taluk of Chirakkal
Same in Kottayam Taluk
12 Anna in old Kadathanad Taluk (Northern part of kurumbranad)
8 anna elsewhere.
The acreage rates were as follows when the revised Govt order was passed in them:-
Rs 3/acre kavayi(chirakkal)
Rs 3/acre Kottayam
Rs 4/acre old kadathanad
Rs 1 or 12 Anna elsewhere.
The ancient customs were all abandoned and the assessment in 1861 was in greatest confusion.Assuming Govtshare as 1/5tth of gross produce money rates per acre represent commutatin rates of Rs 8 to 12 per 1000 Macleod seers.
What were the other miscellaneous seeds cultivated in Malabar ?
Revenue board proceedings dt 24th Feb 1870 gives the following in Palakkat Taluk:-
Cholam,Raggy,Chaama,karimbu,horsegram,pulses,tobacco,thomara,amarakay,castor oil seed, and these were assessed as 12 Anna per acre in 1870.A similar proposal to other crops like pepper,ginger etc was later abandoned on 16th September 1873.(Revenue board proceedings).
Earlier in 1861 Govt had fixed a rate of 6 anna per acre for such miscellaneous krishi and 16000 acres were identified with such cultivation.On 2nd September 1862 Ballard issued orders to assess permanently on acreage such lands which came under palliyaal and vilanokki charthunna vaka.
These were specific local lands.
Palliyaal:-Ricefields intermediate between ordinary lowlying paddy fields and the high lying Modan lands.(The lowlying lands were managed by co-operative farming .High lands individually.Palliyal in between had both under the temple/royal authorities )
Vilanokki charthunna vaka:-lands similar to palliyal and inspected annually for assessment.Palliyal was formerlyassessed as Modan land at 1/5tth of gross produce .Vilanokki charthunna vaka was assessed like a fresh paddy field.
Some naads were treated a sexceptional.They were Cannanore andLaccadives,Wynad,Cochin,Thangassery and Anjengo.
Aliraja had only a small portion on mainland of Cannanaor about 31 desams in and about the townand cantonment and Taluk of Chirakkal .They had to pay a lump assessment of Rs 3801 for the mainland territory.The Laccadive territory belonging to his family were Agathy,Kavarathy,Androth,Kalpeni,and Minicoy.There were a few uninhabited islands as well.Original assessment was Rs 11200 but reduced to R 5250 due to some misunderstanding during 1796 Karaar between Bibi and its rightful suzerain the Kolathiri Raja.
The islands wxcept Minicoy had broken loose from AliRaja in period 1874-75 and exported their produce directly withoutany restriction and the following was their quantity of produce of which coir yarn alone is monopolized.
Coir yarn 6355 cwts Rs 62631
Coconuts 1534121 23011
Copr 1783 cwts 16200
Jaggery 5930 cwts 27423
Vendhia,a sweetmeet 2693 bundle ,13cwts 1334
Total 1,30599
Besides the four islands yielded annually on an average of ten years some monopolized products:-
Cowries 71 cwts Rs 859
Tortoise shell 34 lbs 192
Total 1051
The monopoly produse value of the 4 islands was Rs 63682.
In Minicoy no monopoly of coir yarn ,cowrie or tortoise shell .The revenue from this island was:-
Coconut from Pandaram(king)land 550000 numbers
Coir yarn(poll tax) 22 Candies
Sugar(poll tax)90 adubah worth Rs 225 in Mlabar
Rice(tax on large trading vessels from Bengal)20 candies
Mas fish(tax on fishing boat )350 fish
Money rent Rs 900
The money value (at price rates in Malabar) Rs 7000 /annum/gross
The net revenue after charges of collection Rs 9750.0.11 on the 5 islands and on territory at Cannanore.
Wynad and Nilgiri Commission:-
Wynad Consists of
Peria
Edavaka
Nallurnad
Ellurnad
Kuppathod
Putati
Kurumbala
Porunnanur
Tondarnad
Vaitri
Etannatassakur
Muppainad
Ganapathivattom
Nilgiri commission consists of :-
Cherangod
Munnanad
Nambolakkotta
Constant disturbances existed and agitations were there till death of Keralavarma PazassiRaja (Pychi Raja for Logan)on 3oth November 1805.Mr Baber on 1st March 1806,(after the Raja’s death)reported that the paattam was double the quantity of seed sown .Then Mr Warden sanctioned the following scheme :-
1.Ascertain number of poti(30 seer)of seed sown on each holding
2.Adopt as fixed outturn multiples of the seed sown in lands in the following amsams in the following figures.
TALUK OUTTURN MULTIPLE
Wynad Taluk
Amsam:
1Peria
2.Edavaka
3.Nallurnad
4.Ellurnad
5.Kuppathod
6Putati
7Kurumpaala
8Porunnanur
9Tondarnad
10Vaithiri
11.Etanaatassakur(Edanaattachan koor)
12.Muppainad
13 Ganapathy vattom
13
13
11
11
15
15
13
13
13
13
13
9
9
Nilgiri commission
1Cherangod
2.Munnanad
3.Nambolakkotta
9
9
9
3.The number of Potis(30 seer)of seed X respective outturn multiples =gross produce of holding
4.Deduct from gross produce ,for expenses of cultivation 3 potis(90 seer)for each poti (30 seer)of seed sown.
5.Divide balance thus obtained of the gross produce in equal shares between the Gocernemnt,the Jnamiand the Ryot.
6.Commute the Governemnt share of net produce into money at rates varying according to local market price.This was leftto Mr Barbers discretion.Mr Baber used his discretion power excessively according to Logan ,like the Mysorean officials had done earlier .Later on Mr Warden resolved itself into a simpler scheme of money rates assessed directly on the poti of seed.(not on gross produce but on poti of seed sown itself).This saved work and bother.Instead of applying uniform Govt share ,uniform money commutation rate,of uniform net produce ,the uniform resulting money rate could be applied directly to quantity of seed required to sow each holding and was followed in areas in which uniform conditions hold good.Eg a land holding 5 poti of grain in Ganapathivattom amsam :
5 potiX outturn multiple 9=Gross produce 45
Gross-expense of cultivation (5X 3) =45-15=30 is net produce
Govt share =30/3=10 poti
At Rs 1.2.9 ½ per poti=Rs 1.11.11
5 potis (the seed) at Rs 2.5.7 =11.11.11.
Thus applying the rate Rs 2.5.7 to number of potis of seed sown all intermediate calculations saved.Only annual assessment of quantity of seed needed (that is vilachil meni paattam method was learned by the British).Mr Graeme did not want to interfere with wetlands of Wynad (because wetlands are not much there ).Money rates of poti seed shifted from 1822 to 1881.
Rates of poti(30 seer)of assessed seed Niguthi vithu in Wynad and Nilgiri Commission:-
Wynad Taluk:
Peria
Edavaka
Nallurnad
Ellurnad
Kuppathod
Putati
Kurumbala
Porunnanur
Tondarnad
Vaitiri
Etanattassakur
Muppinad
Ganapathivattom
1822
1.13.10
1.13.10
2.2.1
2.2.1
2.5.3
2.5.3
2.0.0
2.0.0
1.13.10
2.2.1
2,2,1
1.9.7
2.10.0 1881
2.0.0
2.0.0
2.2.0
2.2.0
2.5.7
2.5.7
2.2.0
2.0.0
2.0.0
2.2.0
2.2.0
1.12.10
2.5.7
Nilgiri commission
Cherangod
Munnanad
Nambolakkotta
1.3.2
1.3.2
0.15.0
1.4.10
1.4.10
1.4.10
A fourth kind of paattam called Wardens paattam which approximates to the Vilachal meni paattam of Mr Rickarts came into existence.Example :-
Seed=5 poti
Outturn multiple =15
Rate in Kuppathod and Putatoi amsam.
Vilachal meni paaattam Wardens paattam
seedX outturn multiple =gross produce
5 X 15 =75
Deduct seed =5 & valli+5 Total =10=65
1/3rd profit for ryot =21 2/3
Balance 43 1/3
Govt share 60 % 26
Janmi share 40 % 17 ½ seedX outturn multiple=gross produce
5 X 15 =75
Deduct for expense 5 X 3=15 =60
1/3 to ryot =20
1/3rd Govt =20
1/3rd Janmi =20
The reduction for expenses in Warden paaattam is the customary rate prevalent in heavy rich amsams of Ernad Taluk.
The paattam rates by Wardon paattam was as follows:-
Place Per 1000 Macleod seer in Rs Anna.Pai
Peria
Edavaka
Nalllurnad
Ellurnad
Kuppathod
Putati
Kurumbala
Porunnanur
Tondarnaad
Vaithiri
Etanaattachankur
Muppainad
Ganapathivattom
Cherangod
Munnanad
Namabalakkotta 24.1.2
24.1.2
31.15.6
31.15.6
23.8.11
23.8.11
25.9.3
24.1.2
24.1.2
25.9.3
25.9.3
36.2.5
47.1.8
24.0.6
24.0.6
18.12.11
Market price prevalent in Wynad since 1860 during harvest mnths average Rs 69.6.4.per 1000 Macleod seers.British Govt noticed that this was taken by the people and their Raja for a long time without giving rent to Govt.
Logan says Wynad is an exceptional Taluk due to its unhealthiness and breaking up of old systems had more effect on Wynad than elsewhere on agricultural production and cost of labour suddenly increased and the slaves chose to leave their ancient masters and work for hire on the European coffee estates .(All these happened only after Keralavarma’s death is noteworthy.Till his death ,that is till the failure of the old system there,the adivasis were having a good share of produce and were supporting the Raja and after his death they moved to plantations as labourers just for sustaining their life and they lose the prestige of their ancient race as well as their leader .Taht was the co-operative system which was existing in Malabar as well as in entire India and one has to see history through the words as well as in between words )
Dutch settlements at Cochin;-
From 20th October 1795 till convention in Paris ,Dutch settlements in Cochin was under British flag and it was ceded to Britain in that year.Fort Cochin and the following paattam gardens were in its limits:
1Tumboli 33 miles south of Cochin
2.Kattur 31 ‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’
3Attalakkad 27
4Manakkodath 27
5Antony Fernandez paattam 6 miles South East
6Thekkepurupunkara 6 ½
7Mundenvelli 6
8Domingo Fernandez Palakkal 6
9Santiago 5 south
10Taiveppu 4
11Belicho Rodriques 4 ½
12Saint Louis 5 ½
13Duart Lemos 5
14Hendrick Silva 4 ½
15Raman Turuthi 1 ½ North East
16Sondikalguvankure Silva 4 ½ SE
17Palliport Hospital paramba 16 North
British gave exemption from ground-rent tax for Dutch and the Christians residents (which lead to mass conversions for sustenance )
Land beyond fort was held on lease for periods of 20 yrs and reverted absolutely to Govt with no tenant right or compensation.British continued this with disadvantageous change of selling the lease as they fell in auction(pp 712 Logan).In 1847 Connolly assessment was liable to revision every 20 yrs.The Connolly revision resulted in giving the lease expired land (which was that of the rentor)to ryots /former rentors /or strangers with the auction.
July 1st 1858 Board proceedings settlements of wetlands:-
1.Number of seers required to sow 100 perukkam in each holding assessed.
Perukkam =6 ft X 6 ft =360 sq ft
1210 Perukkam=I Acre
The number of seers required to sow range from 4,4 ½ ,5,1nd 6
2.Outturn multiple is fixed.Range from 3 to 18 times the seed
3.Extants of hundreds of perukkams X Seed X outturn multiple =gross produce of holding
4.Deduct seed and similar quantity for cultivation expenses and find net produce
5.Reserve 1/3rd of net produce for cultivator and remainder is paattam
6.The whole of the remainder goes to Govt though a 65 % share for Govt and 35 % share for janmi is there in accounts.
7.Both shares commuted to money Rs 25/1000 Macleod seers
Thus Conolly followed plan of Sheffield for Modan land and Mr Clemensons plan for distributing produce and extended it to wetlands .This 5th Cochin Plan of Conolly was different fromVelachil meni paattam of Rickarts and Warden Paattam of Wynad.
Example :- seed 5 seers ,outturn multiple 15 .Gross produce 75 .
Vilachal meni paattam Warden paattam Cochin plan
Deduce for expense
Seed 5
Vally 5 total 10=65 balance
1/3rd profit ryot 21 2/3
Balance 43 1/3
Govt share 60 % 26
Janmi share 40 % 17 1/2 Deduce for expense
5X 3=15
Balance 60
1/3rd ryot 20
1/3rd Govt 20
1/3rd janmi 20 Deduce for expense
Seed 5
Valli 5 total 10=balance 65
1/3rd profit ryot =21 2/3
Balance 43 1/3
Govt share 65 % 28 1/6
Janmi share 35% 15 1/6
Look at the figures.Vilachal meni paattam was the old custom of the Kerala .Govt share is for social developmental ,defence,education,famine and other emergency situations etc in it and the money is spent locally for the people,for the society itself .That was not much high from that of the ryot or actual agriculturer class.landlords (intermediaries)were getting a lesser share than the agricultural class.In Cochin plan the share of ryot is preserved.The share of janmi is reduced and it is that amount that was taken by Govt .Since this new Govt did not want to invest in agriculture ,the recycling of money did not happen locally and it went out of the state .The old Kings could not help his old subjects because he was deprived of his means to do so.The janmis who were contributing also were deprived of their customary shares and were hard pressed .
In Warden scheme we find a equality of distribution .It is well and good.But ,here also ,when an emergency comes,and for co-operative farming etc the kings and landlords could not help because their share was cut,and the share of labourer was cut (though minimally)and they were made to believe that the landlords are at fault .The cause for disturbance and rebellion was that reforms were made without understanding the land,its geographical needs,peculiarities,how this was kept prosperous by customary methods etc .It was a communication gap for the ancient Indian economical knowledge and the recently arrived people who did not know much of the land and looked at every attempt of the people and their leaders as rebellion and disobedience rather than understanding the problems.The rebellion of Pazasssi Raja and others ,the mass conversions etc has to be viewed thus from an economic and sociopolitical view and not in religious terms or in any other terms.
In 1828-31 prices were very low .1832 there was a high price rice.It showed no sign of ebbing.Thus the first price rise was induced by the new revenues and new systems and common people as well as landlords suffered since with price rice Govt share of paaattam also increased and the people could not sustain themselves since barter system was being replaced by Govt Currency which no one had at hand.The greatest increase in price rise since 1822 took place just after the 5 yrs ending 1856-57.(The year of the mutiny ).
Average 5 yrs ending Paddy/grace in Rs Gingelly/grace in Rs Coconuts/1000
In Rs Pepper/kandi
550lbs
In Rs Coffee /kandi
560 lbs
In Rs Green ginger /kandi
560lbs
Rs
1851-2 78 266 12 51 75 11
1856-57 108 311 16 85 98 21
1857-58 149 392 21 100 130 23
1858-59 166 407 22 95 121 25
1859-60 197 ……. ……. … …. ..
The price rice of rice affected people whose staple diet is rice.And the same group were having coconut gardens and the price rice was not proportionate and they could not pay revenue from coconut alone when computed into money(in cash)and they had to sell even the paddy which they had kept for their food,maintainance,and seed.
And forest rules prevented them from entering forests and eating food from there or doing minor burn and slash farming for sustenance.This was the situation which created a rebellion and mutiny and in that all people including landlord and kings were sufferers .But,unfortunately .it was later interpreted as an upsurge against landlords by theoretical historians and this is still spread and the real situation as a unification of entire people is prevented by that strategy .
Eranad,Cheranad,Walluvanad,Palakkad ,Ponnani ,Thrissur:-
Ernad Taluk is old Cheranad and Eranad combined.Boundary North Kozhikoodam and Vayya nad(Vaipuram);East Neelagiri,South Valluvanaad and Ponnani and west the sea.
Area 811 sq miles and 140 sq miles or 1/6th under cultivation.Remainder wasteland and hilly tracks.
1881 population
Total 296143
Male 14852
Female 147622
Hindu 145,451
Muhammedan 149987
Christian 699
Other classes 6
Number of houses 60596
Occupied houses 54415
Mountains:-
Vaavul mala,chekkunnan mala ,Pantalur mala separating Ernad from Valluvanad,Urakath mala which was boundary of old Cheranad Taluk The importance economically is the extensive undulating intersections in all directions of valleys of wet cultivation of rice and the valuable timber forests in Nilambur.
Forests under District forest officer:-
1 Karimpuzha reserve
2 Amarapolam reserve
3 Chathamporai reserve
4 Nellikutta reserve
5 Valluvseery block with 3 reserves Pokode,pananghod and Valuuvassery
6 Nilambur block with 6 reserves trevalikkavu,Anwakode,Edakod,Ellanjery
8 kanakut
9.muriat
10 Karien
11 Mangalasseri
12.Ambalakkandi
13 Arimbrakaatta
14 Puthalath chittarikkal
In 1840 Connolly made Nilambur into a monoculture teak plantation.In 1843 Dr Roxburg mof sowing seed in beginning of rains in shaded beds was experimented and succeeded.Chathu Menon a local expert was the first conservator for 20 yrs and from 1863-1883 Mr Fergusson took over.
Rivers:-1.Vaipuram(Beypur)or Ponpuzha of old Parappanad kings come from Wynad and gush round ghats to Nilambur valley ,has tributaries called kalakkampuzha,and karkurpuzha,cholayar on right bank and karimpuzha on left bank.Karimpuzha is a formidable river arising from Nilgiri and Kunda mountain with several tributaries like kurampuzha,kudirapuzha,and discharge to sea at Beypore.Navigable all round year upto Ariakode .In monsoon boats go upto Nilambur.Small boats upto Edakkara 8 miles NE of Nilambur.
2.Kadalundi from Kunda mountains southern slope enters Taluk near Chappanangadi,flow via Tirurangadi and empties in sea at Kadalundi.one branch joining Beypore river ,form chaliyam thuruthu.
At Malappuram it is called Aanakkayam.At Thirurangadi as Thirurangadi river;teak and rafts of bamboo are floated down to depots in Beypore and Kalalyi near Calicut
Consorts of Thiruvithankoor Princess were selected from the Parappanad family (Logan).
The Naaluthara of Chaalakkara,Pallur,Chembra,and Pandakkal desa were also related to Nambiars of Iruvazhinad and kuranghot Nayar and were important Naaluthara of Kottayam Taluk and through Karkur pass they could reach Ernad Taluk easily.(Still the custom of Chembra Thamburan marrying a Thiruvananthapuram princess continues.Father of the singer Ramavarma Raja is from Chembra kovilakam).The Parappanad Raja had his central administration from Netuva amsam of Parappanangadi(southern Parappanad)and pepper,ginger,salted fish and arecanut were main articles of trade.Paramukku(The corner of Parappanad )now called Feroke after Tipu named it as Ferokabad with a ferry (Beypuram ferry)and 2 miles above it in Ernad is the Chathanparambu with megalithic remnants of old Cheranad,Ernad families and ancestors.Beads and urns were excavated here.The agate beads and urns are ancient settlement remnants of the people.Captain Gillham found a very ancient fortress at the mouth of Beypore river the walls strongest at west and northwest and north angles where foundations were 13 ft across and 2-3 ft deep commencing on coarce sand and shelly bottom.southwest it is of laterite stones and chunamb,and there are small portions of masonry and concrete levellings.Who made that fort?The assumption that it was f Tipu was by the British .But the archeological facts do not prove that.Kadalundi and Nirumkaithakkotta in Vallikkunu amsam with temple of Chathan(sastha)or Ayyappa on the slope of a hill and a Melkotta temple above it on top,is infested with monkeys and is supposed to be remnants of army of Rama who accompanied him to Lanka.Netuva amsam has a Pisharikavu temple called PuthiyaRaayaru Nallur (Old Rayarunallur is in Pattambi)dedicated to Mookambika showing the relation from Northern Canara to southern Thiruvananthapuram of all Rajavansa and its deities.The Ernad Taluk list of Devadayam or Inam lands to temples is listed by Logan and 36 temples ,7 mosques and personal inam land to Kondotti Thangal are listed .
Iron was found in Chembraseri and Panthikkad amsam and gold in Nilambur valley in small amounts.coconut oil,castor oil,jaggery,arrack are manufactured everwhere in ernad.Chaliyam ,has art of weaving (called Shaleeaths in Arabian language).The enormous amount of money raised from teak and other forest plantations is listed by Logan .Calicut became an entrepot only after Zamorins time.Before that the entire area belonged to Kolathiri and the center or Kudanad was the center of entire Chera kingdom,and Thiruvithamkur was the Ilamkur or second avakasi, and Northern Kolathiri was the yuvaraja (elder son)or first avakasi .Thus one has to understand history..Then we will get an idea of ancient seafaring which made India so famous all round the world right from period of Babylon,Assyria,Sumeria,Egypt,ancient China and then only we will be able to see what role the western coastal people and their knowledge of monsoons as the Aswath/Aswins or horse winds (in Greek Hippalos) and their secret of good economy will be better understood.
Walluvanad Taluk:-
Boundaries:-North Ernad Taluk,Aanakkayam river in the Malappuram form boundary and a portion of Nilgiris.
East:-Coimbatore district.
South Palghat Taluk ,Ponnani and Walayar river as boundaries.,Cochin state and Ponnani Taluk.
West:-Ponnani and Ernad Taluk
Area:-963 sq miles.214 sq miles (137417 acres)cultivated.273454 cultivable.3000 acres hills and forests .Rest not cultivable.
Red loam soil,with black alluvial clay in valleys.
Attappadi valley(200 sq miles area)is in this Taluk,with river Bhavani .Ghat covered with valuable timber trees and elephants .
Hills:-Panakkodan mala,Avunhikkadan mala,Chirattamanna mala,Anangan mala(of the cupid).Hills have tribes,scrubs,jungles,pasture land for cattle,thatching material for houses,.Dales are fields of paddy,borders of which covered by gardens of jack,areca and other trees.Thutha or Mannarghat river a tributary of Ponnani river is here.Several perennial rivers forming its boundaries used for floating rafts from hills during rainy season and navigable to small boats except in severe hot season.
Rainfall in inches :-
Yr July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Total
1288 22 29 27 22 3 1 .. .. 3 1 20 11 139
89 26 15 6 12 9 .. .. .. .. 2 9 27 106
90 19 6 2 4 8 .. .. .. .. .. 2 4 45
91 22 17 4 6 5 .. .. .. .. 4 12 32 102
92 45 14 9 17 11 1 .. .. 5 3 6 27 138
93 31 16 4 11 11 3 .. .. .. 2 3 17 98
94 21 18 12 13 7 .. .. .. 1 .. 10 45 127
95 33 18 5 25 3 4 .. .. .. 3 10 16 117
Total 219 133 69 110 57 9 .. .. 9 15 72 179 872
averag 109
Climate not healthy and chief prevailing disease is fever.In Jan,Feb,March (with no rain)Malarial fever throughout the Taluk exists.
Population(1881)is 308102 and in 1871 it was 292482.
Males 153236
Females 154866
Hindu 225075
Mohammadan 82883
Christian 142
Others 2
Average population per sq mile 320.Attpadi valley in Arakurissi amsam ,and along foots of ghat is thinly populated.Some parts are not inhabited.
Houses 57220
Occupied 52644
Unoccupied 4576.There are 55 occupied and 5 unoccupied houses in every sq mile and on an average 5.9 persons in every occupied house.As elsewhere in the district houses stand in detached compounds except in towns and bazaars where they are built in form of streets .(Agraharam of Brahmins,Anghadi of Christian,mohammadans ,Chaliya etc)
Bulk of the people are cultivators of the soil.
Profession(occupation):-
Occupation Male Female Total
Professional 4319 553 4872
Domestic 536 691 1227
Commercial 3065 708 3773
Agricultural 62958 20785 83743
Industrial 23564 18363 41927
Indefinite/
Nonproductive 58794 113767 172561
Total 153236 154867 208103
Language is Mlayalam .Attappadi inhabitants(adivasi)speak a form of Canarese.
For administration ,divided to 64 amsam with an adhikari to collect tax,and is also village magistrate and munsiff.He has an accountant under(A Menon)and a couple of peons except in Arakkurissi amsam where thereare 4 peons.Tahsildar with 2nd class magistrate powers is at Perinthalamanna with asst called deputyTahasildar stationed at Chera(u)Pulaasseri .
Cultivation:-Rice,jack,areca,plantains and small amounts of coconuts grown.
Nanja 78815 Acres
Gardens 23116
Punja 35486
Punja represents upland cultivation such as modan ,punam,gingelly etc .The area under cultivation of each crop vary from yr to yr ,according to natre of seasons and other circumstances.
Weekly fairs or markets:-
No: Fair Amsam Day Distance
From Taluk HQ
Miles People
Attending Articles of
Sale
1 Mankata Mankata Sun 6 100 Betel,
Nuts,veg
Miscall
2 Kulathur Kulathur Fri 8 200 Same
3 Tiruvegapura Naduvattam Mon 14 400 Same
4 Chrplaseri Cherplasery Wed 10 500 Same
5 Vaniamkulam Kunnathara Thurs 20 5000 Same+ginger,
cattle
6 Ottapalam Chunanghat Satur 21 400 Miscellaneous
7 Pattambi Nethrimangalam Tues 14 600 Same
8 Pathirippala Perur Sun 30 500 Same
9 Srikrishnapuram Srikrishnapura Tues 16 200 Same
10 Mannarkad Arakurissi Satur 18 500 Same+horn,
Honey,wax
11 Alalllur Arakaparamba Thurs 10 200 same
12 Angadipuram Perinthalmanna Sun HQ 1500 Same+iron,cloth,
oil,coconut
List of temples,sathrams and charitable institutions which gave annadaanam(food)is also given by Logans manual.
Palakad :-
Easternmost Taluk of Malabar.Between 10 deg 25’ and 10 deg 55’N lat &between 76 deg 27’ and 76 deg 55’East log.Comprised Pallakad and Thenmalappuram amalgamated in 1861.Boundaries North Walluvanad ,east Coimbatore &Pollachi and Cochin state ,South Cochin state ,west Cochin Walluvanad Taluk.
It was not surveyed fully and area not known in 1881 .Soil black loam.Along coimbatore and cochin borders physical aspects are unique and singular.Palakkat gap,25 miles across more than 6000 ft lower than the hills with heavy forests,ravines and jungles westward and gradually succeeing ricefields fringed with palmyra palms and several mountains and streams.Chenath Nayar forest and Walayar reserve is British Govt property and all others private.Walayar reserve consist of Varalappadi and Pulampara forests purchased by Govt for woodfuel for Madras Railways.All forests contain teak ,blackwood ,valuable timber,honey,cardamom,gum collected by jungle tribes and bartered in plains for necessities of life.
Rivers:Kalpathy(Nila),Kannadi,kollankot puzha(Gayathri).The first two join at Parali toform Ponnani Puzha (Bharata puzha)and Gayatri join it a little farther on..Kalpathy originate in Chenthaamarakkulam in hills North of Walayar where the stream form boundaries between Malabar and Coimbatore.The other two rise inKollanghot bluff called Mlaya mountainsbeing Northwest extremity of Anamalai.
Climate,health and Metereology:-
Dry season climate very hot ,during rains pleasant ,healthy.November to February strong east winds (land wind)blow incessantly through Palghat Pass which makes weather trying.Water supply satisfactory ,health of people good.Diseases prevailing are fever and small pox.Walayar and other forests have Malaria and cholera makes its appearene occasionally.
Population :-342454 in 56 amsam ,60351 houses.
Hindu 306662
Muhammadan 32330
Christian 3462
Density of population per sq Mile 559/amsam6115 and per house 5-7.Unoccupied houses 12234.
Males 165311
Females 177143
% of population increase compared to 1871 census was in respect to males 3.82 and females 6.31 or 5.09 of both sexes.
Occupations:-
Professionals 5090
Domestic 1526
Commercial 7097
Agricultural 93841
Industrial 51477
Independent 183423
Total 342454
Palghat town big Bazar was called Chethurangapetta with its busy part as Sultan petta.(after Tipu invasion).Trade is tobacco,foodgrains,especially dry grains,oils,cloths .Timber is another source of income.Famous for pullupaaya (grass mats).Brahmin community of Bhattars belong to Palghat Taluk.19 gramams of them in the limits of the Municipality.
1Kalpathy
2.Pazhaya kalpaathy
3.chaathapuram
4.GovindaRajapuram
5.Komaarapuram
6,LakshmiNarayanaPuaram
8.Mukkaa
9.Chokkanathapuram
10 Puthamkurissi
11.Sekharipuram
12.Ramanathapuram
13.Tharekkad
14.Vatakkumthara
15.Nurni
16.Nellisseri
17.Thondaikkulam
18.Pallipram
19.Thirunilaayi
Kalpathy,Mukkai(confluence of Palayar,Malayar and waalayar in Elappali Amsam to form Kalpathy river)and Rameswaratheertha (made by Rama at request of Lakshmana during vanavasa to bringGanga waters)are holy places.
Alathur ,is the land of Ala or Vezha trees(Dalbergia to make mortar).From there one can get to Cochn border of WadakkancherryIn vicinity of Alathur is Velumalai (Vizhumalai)for trigonometric observations.It has a large cave and a natural spring higher up which is never dry.There is a ruined old Hindu temple there.The cave was inhabited once.Portion of wall dividing cave into compartments/herths and a small mill is seen.
Vadakkancherry is the Northern village on North separating from Cochin state.Trade of forest produce and timber is carried on here.An ancient Hindu temple “Tirunara”with a spring and tank “Brahmakunda”is revered as place where Brahma did sacrifice.A handful of sand from the tank is taken by Nambuthiris who perform yaga.
Kollanghot is in Padinjarethara amsam.It was the seat of ancient Venghanaatt Nambidi,members of which family still live there.Kachankurichi temple is here.Sacrificer come to this temple before a yaga to get moonplant(cynanchum acidum) skin of black antelope and black wood (mimosa catechu) from Venkanat Nambidi.6&3 miles respectively from the temple ,on Thenmala ,separating it from Cochin state are two natural springs ,the Sitharkundu and Govindatheertha.
Paalathulli is inhabited by Chetty and Puthunagaram by Christians and mohammadans.
Weekly markets;-
Paalathulli on Sunday
Konghat Monday
Alathur Wednesday
Vadakkancherry Thursday
Paara Thursday
Palghat Friday.
(Palathulli and Konghat are famous for cattle markets)
Apart from Alathur ,a survey station is there in Kurachimala.
Silent valley is a evergreen forest on western slope of Kunda mountains,covering 70 sq miles with grasslands for grazing and this was prevented from 1883.It has poonspar,iyinee,ironwood,red and white cedar,wild jack ,cadomom,dammer ,rattans.
The wide system of interconnected markets and weekly Chantha(fairs)annual fairs at temples,and pilgrimcenters at extreme North and extreme south and the internal trade facilitated by traditional guilds and routes are important and were important in Indian agroeconomy from prehistoric times and still continues to be so.With a wide variety of raw materials and produce ,and with these internal markets ,extending to international markets made India prosperous then and even now.Because even in the present recession years India has a growth of 6.5 % due to the produce and internal markets and a system of its own for survival despite all adversities,and that is because of its geographic nature and this is what we,as well as the Global economy should understand.If we do not upset that nature,entire global economy will improve through the medium of India .
Ponnani Taluk:-
Is the Southernmost Taluk of Malabar.Since our area (Punnayurkulam Parur Padavu )is within this ,this will be treated in a separate chapter.
I like to know the history of Azhakodi devi kshethram, Thiruthiyad, Kozhikode. Please share your knowledge with me. My email : www.logan_p@rediffmail.com
ReplyDelete: www.panayamparamba@gmail.com
I like to know more about Punnathalapathy or Punnathur Raja of Thalappaly
ReplyDelete