Evidence of Indian influence on foreign lands

Evidence of Indian influence in foreign lands.

From lower Mesopotamian plain(Sumer and Akkad)to the Baluchisthan(Kulli

culture)which was called the Kekaya in Indian scriptures, and to Indogangetic divide upto

Gujarat ,the entire area (except Harappa ) share one geographic feature. Arid and semiarid

climate with summer draughts ,unevenly distributed and unreliable rainfall in winter, less

than 250mm per year. Therefore an agriculture based on winter agriculture and herding of

animals like sheep and goat was predominant in these areas.

From Gujarat onwards the entire west coast of India has a monsoon rainfall. The upper

Ganga Yamuna doab is transitional between arid Indus plain and monsoon Gangetic plain

is the eastern limit for winter farming in the north of the subcontinent. The Thar desert is

a physical and cultural divide ,but once it was fertile and was nourished by the

Saraswathy and its tributaries which dried up later leading to the desert climate. The

easternmost manifestation of the arid zone is the Harappan culture .

The environment ,economical potential of each of these regions helped exchange of trade

and local fertility and differences in produces,and mineral resources and sociopolitical

conditions made the organization of trade and commerce possible.Afghanistan with its

inaccessible north east mountains of it was the ancient Gandhara (Khandahar now)of

India.

Kekaya and Gandhara were parts of India and Indian kings were ruling there and their

daughters were wives of Indian kings.Dasaratha,Dhritharashtra and SriKrishna had wives

from such regions. Therefore they were very much involved in defending the Indian

subcontinent from outside invasions and acting as controllers of trade and commerce and

the trade routes to the west by land.
The land route from Baluchistan and Khandahar (Kekaya and Gandhara in Indian

scriptures)is first mentioned in Ramayana .The same route continued to be used in the

17th century between India and the west.(part 2,Chap 3 Neils Strengard in Sushil

Choudhary and Michael Morineau Cambridge Uty press 1999).This ancient caravan route

linked India to Persia and markets further west by way of Khandahar.Its vitality is

documented.

1.Isfahan through Thatta ,along Kabul to North west Mints of silver

,Lahore,Multan,Thatta,Kabul,Khandahar.

2.Steel and Crowther on 3.4.1615 starts a journey ,reach Lahore on 23rd ,delayed by

inability to get a permission, on 29th joined a large caravan, with convoy of horsemen (just

as in Ramayana).Reach Khandahar on 7th July. This was the frontier post of India

(Mughal empire)and a nodal port of caravan traffic. But it yielded nothing but provisions

to travelers. Camels could be hired at 20 % profit. On 23rd July left Khandahar with 3

Armenian and 12 Persian merchants. On 27th reach Girisk in Persia
8th August Farah where import duty has to be given. Beyond Persia

horses,slaves,gold,nonPersian silver coin and export was not allowed.9th August leave

Farah.Deserts crossed with oasis at Birjand and Tabas.They bypassed Yazd ,off the main

route. Reached Isfaharn on 19th September.

3.Poser in opposite direction.

Start on 18th July 1621.On August 1 reach Yezd center of silk industry. No freshwater for

3-4 days being in desert .In Tabas ,Birjand saw windmills. On Sep 2 in Farah where

irrigation works and size of fruits are recorded by traveler. Here a Persian and an Indian

chief of the same caraven and an official from the local Government inspects all people

,baggage,etc and there is a small charge for the hired camel. He fell ill on Sep 12th .On 14th

at Girisk.There he finds a strong castle which could be supported just by the caraven

revenue(showing the busy trade).It belonged to the Indian Mughal emperor.Freshmilk

and fruits were the only food of the caravan and no meat, wine or brandy was

allowed. He had to pay 5 and ½ shahi(silver)at Girisk .He saw people drinking tobacco

there.18th September leaves Girisk,cross Helmand river and reach Mughal India

proper. On 21st reached Khandahar.It was a busy important town. He saw elephant for first

time in life ,there. Busy trade ,thousands of camels entering and leaving daily. Cotton and

textile trade ,tobacco, and wantonness of multiyudes of prostitutes in Khandahar is

described. When they left Khandahar the caraven had 2000 camels. On 30 September left

Khandahar.Travelling through mountains he saw the big stature of the Aquadi who

brought sheep,butter,and rice to sell to caraven.after 16th October reached banks of Indus

river. He felt he had reached another world.5th November he is in

Multan(Moolasthaana).On 23rd reach Lahore and visits a venetian who looks after

churches in Lahore on behalf of the Jesuits in Agra. From Lahore ,broad roads, with

planted trees on sides, many markets and open planes. Passes Sir Hind, an open

countryside, with green irrigated plains ,birds,cattle,sugar production. He describes red

sugar that tastes like white sugar. On 22nd Dec reaches Agra. Total days taken 158 ,as

against Steel and Crowther who took 170 days.

4.William Foster’s early travels inIndia.1583-1619 Oxford 1921.pp 243 4 months and


odd days from Isfahan to Lahore. From there 1 month to Agra.
5.Coverte.1609.Jai salmer and Sukkur from Agra to Khandahar is the shorter route .but

he took 182 days.

18.5 shahi per camel in 6 places by Posen

56 shahi in 9 places by Steel

Security was satisfactory especially if caravan was big. Thieves were present within

caraven.in 1621 tobacco use was widespread there.

In 1610 ,there were 7000-8000 camels stationed to and fro in Khandahar

1615 it was 12000-14000 report of Steel.

Same year Thomas Coryat 2000 camels,1500 horses,1000 odd mules,800 asses,6000

people.

1617 Sir Thomas Roe 20000 camels per year

1635 From Khandahar 4000 camels reached Isfahan with cotton

1639 Cotton from India carried by 20000-25000 camels

1644 only 6000 camels

1655 only 1000 camels.

Colonies of Indian merchants lived in Isfahan.In 1618 an English merchant wondered

why Indian merchants are selling linen of India in other places while their people are

walking naked .In May 1610 Henry 1V was assassinated. The news reached Agra in

August 1611 when a caraven reached (within 8 months)and Bhagavatham rightly says the

merchant class has the duty of bringing news/messages(Vartha) in addition to their

common duties of trade ,commerce, agriculture etc.

The evidence for support of business and administrative infrastructure including custom

duty and periodic check up, security of property by armed people etc shows the ancient

trade route was very well under a strong unified regime of administration .This

continued from Ramayana times upto the European times from our literature survey.

The network developed by bonds of solidarity and trust based on common membership of

one nation identified with another that was on many levels a national substitute for the

state .Sometimes ties of marriage strengthened the trade routes and the relations of the

two partners in trade and commerce. An unquestionable cultural unity and cohesion was

provided by trust and solidarity .Transmission of technical knowledge into a special

language and specificity of such knowledge was also part of the phenomenon. There was

a school to teach the people and the merchants a specialized education, the commercial

geography, weights and measures ,currencies, arithmetic and accountancy and these

existed in each village and in specialized centers .The specialized use of arithmetic

language foreshadows a parallel in the accounting methods used. They had a reliable

system with a kind of promissory note which involve four or more people at long

distances and repayment deadlines were the travel times. For example from Amsterdam to

Basra via Venice it will be 7 months Swat to Isfahan is 105 days ,Dacca to Calcutta is 15

days ,like that. Only the degree of mastery of the sea and substantial presence of

continental continuous trade helped to strengthen the networks and the major sea

networks were monopoly of sea merchants of coastal India and their overlords so that it

was unified system.

What was the commercial relation of India and Ottoman empire in late 15th to 18th

century? In 1503 Ludo Vico de Varthema found merchants of

Iran,Tartany,Turkey,Syria,Maghreb,Yemen,Ethiopia and rest of India and the inhabited

islands of the sea in port of Calicut.Iron,steel,neel(indigo)and cotton of India was in

demand in Basra(Baghdad).In 1583 English traveler J.Eldred wrote :-To Basara come

monthly divers ships laden with all sorts of Indian merchandise ,spices,drugs,Indica and

Calecut clothes.

1610.Caraven from Baghdad to Alleppo carry Indian goods via Basra

(fabrics,indigo,perfumes) and there were 120 merchants in it including Indian and Italian

,Iranian and from Baghdad. In 1624 Hormuz captured by Safavid sovereigns. In 1638

Basra regain its importance. In 1680-90 the custom regulation of luxury clothes of India

Records

11 kinds of Muslin to make turbans

5 types of Quitny(cotton+silk)

4 types of satin

11 types of Ikates fabrics

7 types of bafta(a type of calico)

5 types of costumes

Chintz in 5 colours

The major entre port for Indian articles was Red sea into the Ottoman empire. The

pilgrims to Mecca were the potential commercial agents.Gold was exchanged for

Malabar and Bengal muslin and chitniz at Mecca

Banias of North India and Armenians used the land routes mainly. The Armenians

,Persians ,Europeans were only intermediaries in the movement of merchandise till 18th

century .Indians and Ottoman people were direct trading partners .The Ottoman Turks

include the Arabs or the Kurds and orthodox jews from Turkey.It is interesting that the

Sultan of Istanbul did not sent trading merchants to India as he did to Moscow to get

furs.The Indian products to him were always gifts (fine

clothes,spices,drugs,perfumes,precious stones) and this was a very ancient custom due to

solidarity and relation with old Kekaya .The Ottoma apothecaries called Indian Tamarind

as Demir Hindi or Temur Hindi (which is dramila or Tamila India/sindh)and from this the

name tamarind originated in English language. Mecca pilgrims carried aloe wood of India

in baggage. Also pacholi,sandalwood,bezoar from Golconda.From 1620 only the transport

of spice route was obstructed via the red sea. After that the transport became more via the

Atlantic. The Basra records show Indian spices,nutmeg,Indigo of Ayira(? Ayiramala of

Kottavai in sangham era or from Ayirur of Kolathiri in Kudanad)and it was second

costliest after lapis lazuli of India.

English Chintz

Hindi tchint

Mahratha tchit

Malayalam Cheenthu

It is a hand painted cloth ,the oldest dating is from 1548 for cushion, mattress etc India

exported day to day domestic use clothes as well as luxury clothes right from prehistoric

upto 16th-18th century.17th century Ottoman historian Naima wrote “The Indians do not

buy anything from Ottoman territory. They find nothing they need here. They have no

needs to satisfy in foreign countries.”

This shows how self-sufficient Indian economy was at that time. They were self-sufficient

and they were giving the surplus to others and strengthening the economy. This shows a

good administration ,not a bad one. Then how did such a sudden imbalance happen? The

relation of forces after and before 1498 (which is modern period in west and medieval in

India)changed and we will see that in another chapter.

The oldest written evidence of humanity is the Indus script which is not yet read by

scholars. The next important written texts are the cuneiform tablets and they give us

sources of their goods and the destination of their trading ships as Dilmun,Magan,and

Meluhha.In the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC these were urban centers as per cuneiform

texts. The kind of goods were both raw materials and manufactured ,utilitarian and luxury

items .The notion of trade as sea route and land route was known to them and involvement

of state in trade and agrarian produce and economy is demonstrated by seals and texts of

antiquity in these regions as well as in India. The west of Afghanisthan,now not belonging

to India but the old Gandhara of India ,bordering Iran was a source of copper and tin for

Harappan culture and it helped metallurgy as well as agriculture, production of crafts .It

was utilitarian good for India .The luxury items were for social relation with kings and

rulers for gifts etc .Mesopotamian royalty was the major market for Indian luxury. For

decoration of their temples they got fine timber ,gold, lapis lazuli,etc from India. Origin of

settlements like villages started the local trade and initiation of self sufficiency and the

urban centers developed as the trade and commerce with foreign lands of great distances

increased .Urbanism refers to spatial ordering of the community ,other than subsistence

procurement like crafts,mines,transport systems, taxation for trade etc.Clustering of

nonfood producing population created opportunity for agricultural produce to be traded

locally. The concept of food for all and raw material and fuel for the manufacturers

developed. In exchange the cities gave goods manufactured and services of various kinds

to rural people.

The archeological evidence show that in Ubaid period (5th millennium BC )Eridu,Ur

,Ubaid were settled villages and people were herding and fishing in marshes. The cereal

cultivation had just started. Reed huts and mud brick houses were used. No ceramic

production seen locally. But in the early shrine of Eridu a clay model of boat with socket

for mast is seen in a grave showing knowledge of boat with use of a sail. Seasonal

sea fishing expeditions from Sumer was probably there.Uruk period from 4000-3000BC

we find architecture,sculpture,cylinder seals. There is an 100 hectare settlement ,with

evidence of 8 successive cultures. Home of legendary Enmarker Uruk show some

writings.The first writing appeared in the terminal Uruk period. It was picture like signs on

tokens and tablets for economic transactions and it corresponds with the Indian

civilization period of Vedavyasa and Srikrishna according to Kaliyuga calculation. The

port city of Dwaraka existed till 3104 BC.The temple of Eanna for Ishtar uses

copper,gold,silver,lapis lazuli,cornelian,basalt ,chlorite,marble,and limestone. Only

limestone is locally available. All others are imported .North and south Uruk had pottery

but no Uruk pottery is so far discovered in gulf (pp11 Q. J.Oates and D.T.Potts Shereen

Ratnagar OUP ).Ninevah on the left bank of upper Tigris an important center on route

from North Iran,Anatolia,and Gulf on excavation show artifacts of Uruk type.

At Muscat the discovery of a plank boat (construction and repair)around 3100 BC with

bitumen mixture heating was seen and this is the time of decline of Yadavas of Gujarat

and loss of Dwaraka in India.

The westernmost Harappan center is Sukhthagon-Dor which is fortified to prevent

invasion from west and a local culture of 4th millennium BC exist there (before Uruk

period and before Krishna).Prehistoric Baluchistan (kekaya)link with Turkemania

(quettaware)is established. At Mehrgarh also the connection is seen. There along with

lapis,carnelian,gold,silver ornaments, ornaments of shank shells from the sea of south

India and south East Asia had been identified showing how wide the trade relations were .
Mesopotamia:-

Arid region. In 3000 BC the seed harvest ratio was 1:70.due to annual floods of two

rivers. The stock rearing of sheep and goat was known. In 2600 BC .One temple had

14000 goats and sheep. Wool industry flourished (1Kg wool /animal).Moving pastoralists

were part of economy and sharing of trade goods. In March /April the spring shearing of

wool ,they enter silled zones and exchange wool for necessary goods. Harvests over, they

graze and fertilize fields by droppings. The trees were poplar and willow ,tamarisk, and

date palm. It gave charcoal of bad quality and used for roof beams for ordinary houses. No

wood of strength and durability existed for cart frame, boats and ships and for temple

pillars. These were from far off places and through sea route. Standing at the head of the

gulf south Mesopotamia traded with east and south East .In their writings we find that

Ur,Lagash and Akkad were proud of foreign ships visiting their coasts. They say the

foreign ships brought wood and metal to them through water transport. In ancient times

Ur was one of the southern cities and Jacobson says(1960.185) the water body as a

marshy lake ,seen south of Ur was in ancient times a part of gulf .

The trade relations of Mesopotamia with South Asia is proved by archeological findings

and exchange of several articles including seals, weights and measures and trefoil

figurines on ox/bulls, Indian bull figurines, cylinder seal of rhinoceros with a bead on its

face, of elephants ,ghariels and a lapis lazuli amulet showing two Indian elephants, and

two seals with water buffalo of India which is not a feature of Mesopotamia.

But the ships bringing wood from Dilmun and copper for which barley,cedarwood and

flour were exchanged is mentioned in texts showing the nature of daily use materials

exchange .On Nippur statues in the time of sargon,and from the historical account of

curse of Akkad we have important information about the nature of trade relation with

India.

The Akkadian dynasty of Sargon had three generations .Son of Sargon was Manishtusu

and his son Narain Sen who defeated a Magan king. The names of the kings are definitely

Indian especially the first and the third.

Jacobson has read the historical text of curse of Akkad and given an English translation

quoted by Rathnagar in her book. I will just quote a few lines from it here.

1.Sumerians ,Martu nomads, and Meluhhas came to Akkad.

From Sumer’s own stones

Barges were towed

The Martu of the highlands

Men who knew not grain

Were coming to her with perfect bulls.

Perfect kids

The Meluhhans,men of the black mountains

Were bringing down

Strange goods to her from them.

That means the barges were of Sumer’s stones but the ships were foreign. The Martu is

the Sanskrit Maruthu or winds (49 types of winds )and the monsoon winds bring

high fertility for grains .They brought to them grains and bulls (ploughing bulls)and their

children which were perfect breeds in every way. they also brought strange unfamiliar

goods from the Meluhha country which is the country of black hills.

2.BC 2125 epic inscribed on cylinder A and B Gudea of building a temple and

acquisition of materials for it:-

The Elamites came to the king from Elam

The Susaine from Susa

The Magan,Meluhha in the mountains

Loaded wood upon their shoulders for him

And gathered to build Ningarisu’s home.

3.Carnelian they were lavishing on him from Meluhha.

4.Gifts before the deity:

Chariot,special type of maces,weapons

Copper,tin,slabs of lapis lazuli,

Refined silver,pure Meluhha carnelian

He set up in a huge copper pail.

5.Statue A inscription:- Diorite from Magan mountains which the statue was covered.

6.Statue B inscription:-Diorite come from Meluhha together with gold in its ore state.

7.Statue D inscription:- Magan,Meluhha,Gubin and Dilmun sent wood .They let their

timber cargoes sail to Lagash.

Meluhha is blessed with large cattle and trees
.
8.The speckled dogs of Meluhha was brought to Ibbi-Sin of Ur as a .gift.The area was

also a source of carnelian beads. (This gives us the clue to the fact that Meluhha country

or Mlechadesa in Sanskrit was Kekaya of India. The gifts of King of Kekaya to Dasartha

through Bharatha ,his grandson included speckled spotted fierce dogs of a superbreed

variety special to Kekaya.To this date such mastiff dogs are special for the region.

The UR dynasty and its empire fell in 2004 BC and we find the trade contact till that date

from Indian Kekaya .

But was Kekaya or Baluchistan a black mountain which grew lot of trees which gave it a

greenish/bluish black color? No. But the organized trade and commerce of India made it

possible to get wood from the Sahya and transport it by ships with help of monsoon

winds and the black people of Mlecha country(Krishna )were known as a single

community from entire Sindhudesa to southwestern India.

We cannot consider the Gulf coast taking part in this ancient trade .Because Akkadian Ur

fell by 2004 BC and the Arabian coast of gulf was uninhabited till the oil was struck and

the Bahrain culture starts in 1500BC and Kuwait culture starts in 2000 BC well after the

SUMERIAN/AKKADIA civilizations fell. But in 1900 Dilmun (Bahrain)had sent Indian

ivory,carnelian,gold and fisheye(mother of pearl specific for Bahrain and Gulf

coast)lapis,copper,wood of good quality, wooden objects,Guhlu etc none except fish eye

is the product of gulf but of India.Guhlu from Dilmun is translated as antimony. The term

resembles Guggulu a medicinal substance for heart diseases is my observation.

What was taken back by Dilmun for exchange of such costly things from

Mesopotamia.? The answer is very significant. For such superior quality articles,Dilmun

ships took back inferior quality wool, and garments, leather goods, silver and sesame oil.

Articles from Dilmun to Ur Source of ref information(archeological)
1 Carnelian UET V
2Semiprecious stones UET 3 .672; UET V ,;UET 1244
3.Ivory and Ivory objects UET 3;UET V;Urik archaic text DP 237;513;518,RTC 26,VS X1V 30,38,194,UET V UET V 796 Expecting a very large quantity
4.Copper
5 Silver D.T.Potts 1990 227 says susa texts dt 1720 BC 17.5 Manna silver
6Lapiz lazuli UET V Texts
7.fish eye same
8.red gold Same Tablets
9.white corals same
10.wood of good quality UR ,Gudea statue D ,Cylinder A,UET V
11.Dates Enki,Ninhurag
12.Bitumen for ship repair YOS 5 ,Larsa pd text

This shows Bahrain or Dilmun was acting as an entre port for trade of Sumer,Akkad and

India (west Asia)and was not a trading partner for them. For acting as entrepot they

received the inferior quality articles from Mesopotamia and probably from India they got

some grains or food material and clothes for day to day use and the art of repair of ships

was taught for mutual help.Cylinder A passage mentions transport of wood and huge

amounts of food grains. In the deluge myth of Akkad,Zinsudra escapes deluge and

allowed to live in Dilmun ,a place where the Akkadian sun rises and called the land of

Crossing.(to east of Akkadia and the crossing point or entre port of India and

Mesopotamia in sea trade. Before 2000 BC there was no fresh water in Bahrain and

people could not settle there. In a 3000 BC profession text ,a tax collector is mentioned

showing that the export trade was well organized and state controlled by the trading

partners. The Magan contact is mentioned from Akkadian period only and not in

Sumerian period. Oman has copper which is mentioned only after Akkadian period. The

reason for this is:-

1.Dilmun may not be a specific geographic name for Bahrain only ,but included other

islands also

2.Dilmun acted as a middle man since they were using the weights and measures of

Harrappa and IVC and did not have weights and measures of their own.

Why is the Maruths of the highlands of India called the men who don’t know grains and

the black men of the black mountains of Mlechadesa said to have brought good wood and

well-bred plough bulls and calves for agricultural use?

The answer is simple. The Upper highlands of Baluchistan (kekaya) and

Gandhara(Afghanistan)were not cultivable lands and had only limited pastural

life. Stretches of uninhabited land near settlements with artisans living and manufacturing

goods was the picture. They needed grain and it was supplied by organized trade from the

fertile southern regions of India, The manufactured goods reached through trade routes all

over the world. The South East of Bampur Valley lies Baluchisthan and North East is

Kerman region to Seisthan.SE Zagroz zone is Soghun valley through which flow Dozdan

river to gulf of Oman in the vicinity of Minab which is a fertile district and if one walks

for 5-6 days through this riverbank, one can reach the sea coast from Yahya

Tepe.Downstream the Soghan valley 24 Km southeast of Dolatabad lies the copper

deposits and large quantities of slag is visible. Steatite specifically chlorite is seen in 4

locations here .Therefore from Neolithic to Sussarian times Tepe Yahya had human

settlements and in early 4th millennium BC thirty settlements were in Dolatabad.By the

time of Yahya IVC period most of these settlements were abandoned. In Yahya period

1V c ,a storage building complex where the consignments were stored and dispatched

existed .They stored lapis lazuli, solid foot goblets with flat base unlike the hollow conical

foot and conical cup forms of Barber 1 period. The sequence of organization and

transport of culture and materials is from east to west and not from west to east or

downwards from north. The South provided food and raw materials and available

minerals along with rich forest products and gold and the northern India and North

west provided great manufacture centers of copper, chlorites ,and other minerals and

metals and metallurgy became specialized and export quality. The entire trade from

Kanyakumari to Gandhara and Kekaya was well organized through sea and land routes

and this made the land self sufficient and could give surplus to Babylon and Akkad and

Sumeria through organizes state administration. The concept of a organized ekarashtra is

seen in Mahabhagavatha and The ekarshtra is Brahmanda(universe)itself and Bhartha

was only part of this ekarashtra and was sharing its valuable products for cheap things

which she did not need but the entrepots needed in exchange. By the development of

organized specialized professional excellance and knowledge and sharing by co-

operation she had learned and taught a new system of successful administration based on

confederation of self-sufficient republics of several panchayaths and nagara .

The Helmand civilization and Gaandhara:-The Helmand river originate from the

Hindukush mountainous highlands and form the Hamun-I Helmand in Seisthan.One of its

tributaries Arghandab flows through Kandahar and meet Halmand west of Kandahar.The

seat of Shahr-I Sokhta and Helmand civilization is this part.

The names Hamun-I and Shahr-I strikes a familiar chord in our memory, because the

name of the Gandhara prince who accompanied Gandhari to Hasthinapur was Sakuni ,a

unnatural name which looks quite different from other names of the epic and if written as

Sakun-I it is a Gandhaara name .The Hamun lake the only fertile region of Iran is

changing dimensions year to year and climate is bad for agriculture. The notorious winds

of 120 days (from May to October)creates havoc on soil,vegetation,sand particles act as

abrasive ,erode soil, strip the plants of their leaves etc.The whole stretch of lands from this

to Nepal is the land of the Northern Maruths ,as described by Akkadians ,but the Nepal is

geographically different from Iran and has cultivable lands though a land of winds.(Many

of the places are having the suffix of Hawa or wind attached ).This stretch of land is on

the silk route .The wheat and cattle(animal husbandry)was practiced and mats

,weaving, wool spinning etc were occupation of people .Quartz,alabaster,flint

,marble,calcite,are available in Seisthan ,the seat of Sassanian and Parthian

kings.(Sassania is from Sasaadha and Parthian is from Bharatheeya and these are

corrupted local usages).Silver, lead and malachite pebbles(same as in Mundigark)is seen

in the south. To the east the Helmond leads to Kandahar and Mundigak

settlement.Helmand river is not navigable in any part and hence the transport is only by

land route.

One important archeological find is that in grave 10 of Shakr-I –soktha which is the

limits to Baluchisthan(Kekaya)one finds shreds of nal pottery and vases and a collection

of Shank shells from south Asia on the surface of the mountains showing that it was a

confluence place for three civilizations Central Asia,South Asia and west Asia. The total

area of Shahr-I soktha is only 151 hectares and the other settlements are only the size of

small villages not more than 2 hectares. The time span is from 4th millennium BC to end of

2nd millennium .Only 2000 years did that civilization exist. It was not continuous as

Indian ,but had features in common with Indian and was acting as a boundary and

transport center for trade and commerce .Shahr-I soktha has scarce evidence of long

distance export –import and only connection is with S.E.I ran .On the other hand

Mundigarh near Khadahar which has an agricultural production stretch of present

Afghanisthan and old Gandhara ,was the node of a very ancient caravan route from

Herat,Indus plains,Sibi,Quetta,Kabul and Ghazni.It is not in the fertile Kandhahar plain

but 50 Km North ,separated from a hill spur and the routes used by

pastoralists(Idaya/Yaaadava) who go to Gandhara plain for the winter sojourn.(Rathnagar

pp 67).The eccentric location and an important deposit of Galena gave importance to

Mundigarh.The layers of occupation predates Shahr-I soktha by 1000 years. But it became

an urban center only in 3000 BC -2000 BC with a defensive rampart and a palace.(That

was the time of Mahabharatha and Krishna and of the rise of Kuru race and sons of

Gandhari).The people used metal,stone,seals,and a work shop and two carved ivory

artifacts are excavated from here which does not exist in Shahr-I soktha
.
Iranian Baluchisthan (The Bampur valley)with mountain ranges ,plateus,winding river

basins,low troughs is a desolate zone of base rock and sanddunes.The size and number of

human settlements are limited .The major diet is fish from a perennial river .Pastoralism

,seasonal migration for high pastures on Makran ranges and Sarawan plateau still exists

as prehistoric times. The only surplus they have is wool and ghee. The household

equipment is minimal. Palm leaves used for making huts,tents,mats etc.On North Bampur

valley opens to river Damian’s tributary near Irahshakr and here there is cultivation and

on its east margin lie Katukan .On east is Bampur and Mashkel,once a part of the Seistan

empire.

River Halil Rud from Kerman area, and to south towards Makran ,empty into Hamun-I

Jaz Murian ,a low trough at center of which is the famous salt lake.Bampur river empty

into salt lake from east. Thus the natural route of communication existed between Kerman

,Makran,Halil Rud and Bampur.In SE direction, the Halil Rud-Bampur route continue to

Serbaz and then Kej valley and on NE to Rakshan and Mashkel valley. An old route

connect Bampur to Char Bahar ,which is an important settlement and harbour on Makran

coast .On the north a route leads to Seistan.

Thus copper traveled to west of Halil Rud near Faryab,lead to Kuh-I –Jebel Bariz,both

copper and lead to slope of Kuh-I Tuftan,and copper to Northern slope of Srhadd from

here.Mundigark and MohenjoDaro was in constant contact with Bampur and this caraven

route and intermediate centre of distribution. This connection continued even during

Buddhist period as we see the Buddhist idols of that period in plenty here.

Now we have seen how the land routes of India and Babylon/Akkadia was established and

how the ancient caraven routes connected the two sides of the globe.Now we have to

locate the Magan mentioned in Sumerian/Akkadian manuscripts,because Sargan was

receiving boats and ships from Magan,Meluhha and Dilmun and Dilmun is the entre-port

Bahrain ,and Meluhha is the Mlechadesa called Sindhu-Souveera in Sanskrit.

Sargon’s son Manishtusiu sailed across the lower sea and defeated 32 towns of Magan

and cleared the way for metal and silver mines ,quarried black stone of mountains of lower sea, loaded it on ships at the quay of Agade.Narain Sen,his son, subjugated Magan

,captured its EN(ruler)quarried diorite in mountains and cursed the sea and defeated

Magan ,and washed weapons in lower sea according to his inscriptions.Gudeas statue

inscriptions say Na4 esi from Magan was taken in Magan ships of wood.(This is same as

diorite/dolerite).Gudeas statues are made of it. It is dark hard takes lustrous sheen when

polished. It was used for Akkad and Lagash architecture and came from Magan.In

Ninurtha myth it is said a special mace was made for him with diorite from Magan which

has silver around it.Gudea made his own statue with it and kept in temple.

Magan is a land of sailors and merchants according to the description but none of 3rd

millennium cultures of Iran had substantial maritime and shipbuilding

knowledge.Chahbar was the only natural harbour on the whole of Persian coast .Magan is
said to be a land of mines and copper came from there to Sumer.What else came from

Magan?

Haluppu wood for furniture ,chariots but not for ship-building.

Mesu wood for vehicles and furniture only. Not good for ship-building

Darius inscription call it Yaka in old Persian language which is equivalent to Yaksha in

Sanskrit(The yaksha wood from land of Yaksha,Kubera who is a ruler of Himalaya

,including Nepal upto Lanka in south according to Ramayana ).It came from Gandhara

and Karmaana(Kerman)and is Dalbergia Sissoo called Yax or Jag in local

Kerman.Yaka/Mesu is Sissoo.Magan reed is bamboo which grows in Makran and

bamboo pieces for export is excavated from Harappa.

Sar-Ma-Gan is onion, garlic and asafetida of India traded between India and Gulf through

Kerman where it is grown for trade. Red ocher is another.

Magan is old Persian Maka /Makaran (Mahaa/Mahagrihan)and the present Mehrgarh

.Ivory from Kerala and Karnataka went to west and barley and wool came from west

through Makran and Makran /Magan thus formed an important link for commerce and

trade. Grave 8 of Shusin(read as Susena) in 2030 BC ,just 1000 yrs after Dwaraka

sank, there had been a floods and famine in India and Magna received 70-600 gur (21000

to 180000 liters)and barley from Ensi of the town .In the reign of the last ruler the

dynasty records a merchant who took delivery from temple of Nouna of consignments for

purchase of Magan copper and wood in exchange of fish, garments ,hides and sesame

oil. The texts say lapis lazuli came from Mehluhha and Aratta valley but not from

Magan.Arattaka desa is mentioned in all ancient Sanskrit texts as part of India and it was

a yadava country..And Mlehchadesa is that parts of India where the people do not follow

the Vedic injunctions correctly and speak a mlechabhaasha or prakrithic regional

language. In Akkad period and UR 111 texts reference to a man Lu-ma-gan(or Mr

Magan,man of Magan )is seen.It was a trade center subjugated by Akkadians and a trade

partner for Sumerians from where Magan came. In India also mention of MaagaBrahmana

is seen as experts in astronomy, and philosophy as well as architecture .Harappan people

had strong links with this area and both Harappa and Maagan were part of India

itself. There are settlements along the major avenues of commercialization and Makran is

called the land of passage.Physiographically the route runs East-west and Southwest to

North east .During Alexander’s period coastal Makran was not suitable for caravan traffic

but was possible from Kej valley(in Makran) to Bampur and Sarbaz valley and this east

west routes natural eastward extension was Mashkai (Mushkai)valley

,Nal,Khuzder,Bela(east)across Nal river to Jhan pass by two day caravan journey. From

Khuz der to east through Mula pass reach southwest edge of Katchi plains(Katch or

Brighukatcha plains start here)Then turn southeast you are in Mohenjodaro.So

Mohenjodaro was the centre of the Brighuvansi and their generations of rulers. From

Bela to south through Sounmini bay another route runs to Harappan settlement at Balakot

towards the coast of Brighukatcha.Several kulli settlements lay astride land routes

between lower Indus plains and Harappan part of Makran.Rainfall being low and

unreliable population density is less in Makran.Pasturalist nomadism is the

livelihood. The northern Las Bela is fertile and has incidence of sedentary cultivation in

Baluchistan .In kulli culture including Nindowari stone boulders not locally available is

used for architecture ,of stone terrace and platforms ,granaries,fortifications.Why such

fortifications for mobile pastoralists? The common houses of Makran and south

Baluchistan is of mudbrick and mat even today. From where did the stone come? From

where did the labor to mobilize them come?Nindowari in Makran is a Harappan site

and that settles the doubts and the mercantile and co-operative life of Kulli(Baluchistan)

or kekaya and Harappan(Bharatha race)people which has literary/archeological evidence

from Ramayana/Mehrgarh times .The cart transport is by donkey/camel due to rugged

surface of land routes. And fodder for animal caraven is difficult to obtain. The

fortification of Harappan port settlement in Makaran show some anticipation of threat

from some one. Was it from Iranian Baluchistan during times of hardships? The

Harappan merchants in the fortified city were residing there to get copper from mines

between Hiari and Bela.Their weights and measures in the kulli sites were for that

purpose. The Harappan Mesopotamian trade like ivory, carnelian beads, and silver did not

touch the Kulli sites. Therefore it is evident that Harappan people used Kulli sites as a

periphery of their empire. And as in the village and town planning of India ,the

periphery of their empire also was guarded by people of the outcaste who eat meat and do

tanning and animal scavenging and are good messengers in times of danger to the interior

,and the inhabitants were the Mlecha of Indian language and Meluhha of the Outside

world of Akkad and Sumer.

The Harappan ports of Makran excavated are:-

1.The most westerly Sutkagen dor 650 Km west of Lower Indus ,and thus belongs to

Sindhudesa ,the Mlecha land of India.The king of this area was Brihadratha and his son

Jayadratha during Mahabharatha days and Jayadratha was husband of Dussala ,the

princess of Hastinapure and niece of Prince of Gandhara ,Sakun-I .So they were not a

different race .

Coastal Makran the uninhabited desert and hilly ,cliffy, swampy arid clay plains and bad

water ,170 mm rain/annum and failing rains every 3 years grows only dates ,jower and

barley. No perennial wells ,only a few natural springs exist .Houses are mat made. Fish is

eaten and fed to livestock .For dates they get back bread and barley .

2.Tiz .This is a natural harbour located away from monsoon winds reach and hence they

could not use monsoon winds for sea travel and had no first hand awareness or

experience of monsoon winds/sea route by winds. But it was a port. The materials from

southern ports reached here and were taken in exchange for the copper ,wool ,dates etc

and then transported to other areas.

3.Dasht-Sukthagon Dor of Harappans.

4.15 Km north of Pasni ,the Harappan site of Sotka Koh.

5.From Sonmani Bay an old route reach 12 Km inland in a Harappan site Balakot with

fresh water in deep wells and cultivation with well water irrigation. And 25 Km inland is

another Harappan site Khaira Kot. ( One thing which I notice is that the fortified cities and

ports have a name Dor which resembles Dwaraka with same meaning as doorway ,and

the suffix Kot to Baala( name of Devi)and Khaira (for artisans or kammala )resemble the

suffix Kozhikod or koodam (meaning a center where people meet /kooda or koodastha

/kozhikoodam in sangha literature,Irunjaala koodal/chithiraikoodal etc ).

The Harappan sites communicated through boat traffic all the year round and into the

vicinity including Mesopotamia westward which did not know shipbuilding as their own

texts show.

6.Gwador bay and Pasni.The best ports of Makran .now in Pakistan. Well sheltered and

with the seasonal Desht river that is tidal for 20 Km .The exclusive Sutkagon dor

Harappan site with fortified walls used these ports .Sotkan Koh and Sutkagan dor are on

top of a natural rocky elevation(Girigurga).The Giridurga and the

Mahagriha(Mehrgarh)of Kekaya is mentioned in Ramayana when the messenger of

Vasishta traverse the route to reach there .

Balakot is small .The lowest levels are pre-Harappan .High levels are Harappan

period. Shell industry of bangles, unfinished articles, and bivalve shells in abundance

noticed. Distance from sea shore of these Harappan sites.

Sutkagon dor 48 Km

Sotka koh 12 Km

Balakot 9 Km

Makran also show early microlithic pre-Harappan and protoelamite sites showing their

antiquity.

Harappan civilization is in the stretch of land comprising NW FP ,west Punjab, Rajasthan

upto Aravally from eastern limits of an arid semiarid belt across SW Asia and share

geographical features with west Asia ,and is a transitional zone and is on the western

borders of monsoon India .

In west Asia rain is between November to April. Wild sheep and wild wheat grow in dry

winter areas. During this time a high pressure stream enters NW India from west Asia

,one branch of it follow the south flank of Northern mountain ranges. Beneath it low

pressure troughs or waves and small winter rainfall follow.

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