Friday, May 28, 2010

Food and society

Food and society –its economical and sociocultural implications to Human beings

Recently I happened to read a very important study by G.Balachandran Pillai (Constraints

on differences and adoption of Agromechanical Technology in Rice cultivation in Kerala

.2004.Kerala Research Proceedings on local level development Center for

Developmental studies.TVM ISBN 81.87621.62).This study points out that

1.The farmers of the Kol lands and Kuttanad harvesting and threshing are the most

difficult operations due to labour shortage

2.Shortage of labourers may be due to drudgery of operations such as harvesting

,transplanting and thrushing and because the younger generations prefer white collar jobs

outside their village

3.The Kol land farmers are best adapted for accepting the new machinery

techniques,because of their well-established group-farming concept among the farming

community .

4.The Kol lands have only one crop because in other times there is unfavourable weather

and this leads to underemployment.

5.The transplanting was previously done by women and now they are not available for

such things as harvesting,transplantation.Paddy trasplanter and vertical conveyor reaper

is the only solution now for this problem(and since Kol farmers do accept the

mechanization )this is possible to be implemented on co-operative basis.

6.The established group-farming societies called Kol padavu committees as well as the

labour union leaders favour mechanization in rice cultivation in peak seasons due to

labour shortage.

7.Inadequate custom hire facilities for farm machinery is the major constraint for

Mechanisation in Kol lands.The other serious problems are lack of credit facilities and

high capital cost of implements .

8.The author also notes that the opposition from farm labourers for mechanization is

more in Kuttanad and Palghat Kole fields while in other Kol fields this is not a major

problem. (This is an interesting social problem.If we analyse why the farm labourers are

against mechanization we get some political equations which are detrimental to the nation

and the farm labourers are being brainwashed against their own interests by someone is

clear).

I have quoted this study because most of the points he noticed ,I too have noted in my

study of Punnayurkulam Parur Padav ,and the solutions to the problems should be based

on these.

N.Gopalakrishnan Nair (Measurement of employment,unemployment and

underemployment ISBN 81.87621.75.3 2004) notes that over the years there has been a

gradual decrease in the working force in Kerala.When William Logan saw Kerala no

woman was unemployed or underemployed and had activities during agricultural season

as well as outside of it and man and woman were engaged in a co-operative way in all

socioeconomic activities though division of labour existed.Even the women were helping

in irrigating fields on a Wheel as he notes.But women as well as men does not go for

such activities and depend upon outside labourers for producing food.The dignity of

labour we have forgotten .Another study (ISBN 81.87621-84-2 Changes in the mode of

labour due to shift in landuse pattern ) finds out rapid marginalization of land holding in

most parts of India ,due mainly to a disproportionate proliferation of marginal holdings –

both ownership and operational.The households and proliferated,the small holdings

increased,share in total holdings declined and pattern of intra-generational economic

mobility of agricultural households is the explanation for such land distribution.He

describes the centripetal and centrifugal mobility (in both directions and towards centre

respectively).The first produced polarization and class differentiation among peasants

,inequality of land and wealth.That is the orthodox Marxist view.But the neopopulist

view is that the centrifugal mobility has diminished the degree of inequality.

The total wetlands Nilam in Kerala according to revenue records is 5.74 lakh ha.The

Kerala statistical institute (1992-93) says only an area of 3.33 lakh ha now remains as

wetlands and used for rice cultivation.Nearly 1.37 lakh ha are now under perennial crops

and 0.35 lakh hectare is used for nonagricultural use.Area that is being filled up and made

unsuitable for rice cultivation is increasing day by day.

The topography and climate of Kerala is different from rest of country and Kerala is best

suited for rice cultivation.From 1952 to 1997 the share of area for paddy has halved

(especially over the last two decades).Rubber cultivation area has dubbled and this is

followed by coconut and pepper and othe rcashcrops .According to economic survey

1997 during 1996-97 the area under high yielding variety(Virippu 40 % ,Mundakan 36

%, Puncha 24 %) is retained and the average productivity of state has remained over

national level ,though the total area under rice cultivation has declined .This justification

is closing our eyes to reality.The area of wetlands have reduced considerably and that too

for nonagricultural activities.A portion is used for vegetables now.The area covered by

seasonal crops can still be reconverted to paddy .Vast areas under multiple crop system is

now having just one crop.Perennial farm crops dominate farm sector.The agricultural

labourers have become rubber tappers and high wage rates have rduced their number of

working days creating underemployment through out year. In 1951 23.22 % of working

force were cultivators and in 1991 it has declined to 12.24 %.Agricultural labourers

constituted 26 % of working force both in 1951 and 1991. All trade unions

(INTUC,CITU,AITUC and KarshakaMorcha of BMS) are in favour of lease-in

cultivation of fallow land as it increases the number of days of employment and

productivity of wetlands in general.The new agrarian relations in Kerala is thus having a

radical change from what it had been .

Probably the best article about our status about food sufficiency is reflected in a

exhaustive study on India State Hunger Index ( Comparison of Hunger across the states

.Purnima Menon ,Anil Deolalikar ,Anjor Bhaskar .Washington DC .,Bonn ,and Riverside

.International food policy and Research Institute February 2009).Without going into the

details of the statistics drawn I will just draw the attention of readers to the Hunger map

of India provided by the authors.

In that we find Madhyapradesh has an hunger index 30 % or more that is extremely

alarming.Kerala,Andhrapradesh and Assam,Punjab chandigar 19.9 which is serious

.Kashmere,HP,Utharkhand,Arunachal Pradesh,Tripura,Meghalaya,Nagaland ,Manipur

and Mizoram and Goa er index not yet estimated.The rest of India

(Haryana,UP,Rajasthan,Delhi,Gujrat,Bihar,Charkhand,West Bengal,Orissa,Maharashtra

,Karnataka,Tamil Nad) has 20-29.9 which is alarming.

So only Kerala,Andhrapradesh ,Assam ,and Punjab Chandigar are less affected areas (it

has severe ,if not alarming or extremely alarming rates).Why these four areas have less

alarming Hunger index?

Because of the plain and simple reason.Kerala,Assam and Andhrapradesh are the major

paddy growing areas due to climatic conditions.If these three areas can grow more rice

,they can meet the needs of the other states which are not that lucky to have such a good

climate and fertility .This we have to remember always.And the National and State

programmes should give more importance to Agricultural operations.In Punjab

the green revolution is now growing enough wheat and therefore they have also escaped a

little from the alarming state of affairs.

See the importance of the Nature’s gift for growing rice or wheat ,the staple diet of the

people.The Civilizations of India from ancient times knew this,and on a co-operative

basis had a flourishing agroeconomy which shared foorgrains and bartered with other

products .This is still possible if we unite ,have a common goal for the nation and do not

think in individualistic and state –oriented selfish way .We are a single nation and has to

remain so.We have to produce food more for the sharing of it with others ,and the other

operations like dwelling constructions etc can be done only where there is no fields of

cultivation.

Moreover,the greenery and nature ,the protected heritage sites and opportunities for safe

boating and fishing etc can bring more tourism opportunities for the state .If no

monuments and no greenery ,no natural beauty and wild life which tourist will prefer a

state as tourist attraction?




Food is Annam and the earth is Annapoorna,the Holy mother. From Vedic India onwards

the significance of food and its role in life had been recognized and well researched by

Indians. But in the western world as Peter Atkins and Ian Bowler suggests in the

introduction to their book” Food in society” food has received little academic attention

due to it’s a taken for granted attitude to life, and as a research subject it lacked novelty in

social sciences. Recently the food and its research has become prevalent in

historical,cultural,sociological,anthropological and post modern ,post structuralist

studies. The idea of a food system according to the authors stretch back to 150 years

only(page 9) starting from George Dodd’s book(1856)to Raison’s (1933) .They give the

estimates of the main components of the UK food system 1997 from the ministry of

agriculture and the agrifood system modified after Whatmore 1995 (pp 10-11).

The food from farms goes to manufacturers and from them to wholesalers and retailers

,and thence to caterers and consumers. The export is about 7 less than the import.

The Agrifood system has the agritechnology industries at the top and the food

consumption at its base.

Agritechnology industries Machinery
Chemicals (fertilizer, pesticides)
Biological(breeding ,GMOs)
Factors of production Capital,credit,financial services,labour market,information,training,supply of seeds,chemicals,equipments
Farming industry Landed/property interests,
Farm business
Farm/property servicing agencies
Intermediate Wholesale assembly
Imports/exports
Storage and transport industries
Co-operative /state collective marketing
Policy and intervention arrangements
Food industries Processing,manufacturing,packaging,wholesale distribution,catering,retailing
Regulation State health and nutrition policy
State food quality
Safety monitoring
Food security measures
Food consumption Household labor in food preparation
Purchasing power
Food habits
culture

The food studies are inter-multidisciplinary involving

agriculture,geography,ecology,sociology,anthroplology psychology, social administration

,education marketing and media studies and regional cultures and climatology. In human

history food is mainly consumed at site of production .The early food gatherers/hunters

and the cave dwellers and villagers all depended on their region and climate for food and

knew it well for survival. Trade by bartering developed among neighboring societies and

it expanded through wandering tribes of the cattle-rearer class and the fisherfolk .By 15th

to 17th century India and Europe established a commercial trade and the gain of

knowledge was more for the west than the east regarding agricultural economy and food

chains and ecology.The globalization of food and international trading in food started

with this at large scale.Production,distribution and consumption of food changed

equations with this .Political economy is a branch which helps developing nationally and

globally oriented food system along with subsistence agriculture and commercial

agriculture for regional as well as international markets. This is a social economy as a way

of life founded on food production on a regional basis expanded globally. The concept of

food regime developed in the west in 1980 out of French schools of regulation theory.

1 EXTENSIVE REGIME mid 17th to world war 1.

2 INTENSIVE REGIME end of world war 2 to 1970( 1947-1970)
3.Regimes since 1980.

Regimes of accumulation existed from 1930 depression to global recession in 1970.It was

a stability by mode of social regulation(MSR) by which society organizes and conducts

production and reproduction and how social relations were maintained .In this

interpretation national regulatory frameworks and state rules are product of class

powers. International regulatory structures are created from and are sustained by nations

and other transnational entities.



Characteristics of food regimes by Le Heron 1993 (pp 26.Peter Atkins)

Food regime First (pre-world war 2) Second(1950-1970) Transition to 3rd (1980-1990)
Principal tendencies Culmination of colonialism
Rise of nation-state system Extension of state to former colonies
Transnational restructuring of agriculture by agro-food capitals Contradictions of productive and consumption trends
Disintegration of national agro food capitals
Governing premises Acceptability of alien rule
Propriety of accumulation regime
Importance of balancing power
Legitimacy of neo-mercantilism
Noninterference in others colonial administration International free markets and enterprises
Extra market channels for food distribution
Avoidance of starvation
Free flow of crop information that is scientific
Low priority for national self-reliance
National sovereignty
Low concern about chronic hunger Multipolarity of power-US ,EC,Japan
Global transmission of adjustments
Rise of new protectionism
Retreat from distributional issues
Restricted flow of technological information
Renewed interest in national self-reliance
Main historical features Centered on European import of wheat and meat from settler states1910-1914
Import by settler states of European manufactured goods,labour ,capital Based on strong state protection
Organization of world food economy under US hegemony after 1945 Crisis in world agricultural trade featuring price instability ,breakdown in multilateral agreements increased competition in export markets limited imposition of structural adjustment policies
Main international policy features Imperial preference .vertical hierarchical relation Bretton-woods agreement,GATT,postwar reconstruction
Multilateralism
Nondiscrimination and
Legal approach to regulation
US management of international agricultural trade system via agenda setting in international relations
Commodity agreement and conventions
Attempts to resolve world agricultural trade issues through GATT Framework
Main national policy features Assistance for land settlement and infrastructure Cheap food policies
Credit expansion
Production control mechanisms
Market creation via concessionary export sales and food aid Opposing trends of further protection and deregulation of agricultural sector

The economic base of the alternative food network have a range of social

movements :-

Environment

Sustainable agriculture

Community-supported agriculture

Consumer and health

Genetic resources conservation

Animal rights

Consumer preferences

Farmer’s markets

Traditional medicines ethnic cuisine

Variations in farm size in selected European nations (1993) showing % holdings

in each farm size groups from 1-5 Ha to more than 50 hectares.(European

commission statistics)

Country 1-5 Ha 5-10 10-20 20-50 .>50
Germany 31 15 18 23 13
Greece 75 15 7 2 0.4
Italy 77 11 6 4 2
Spain 57 16 11 8 7
UK 14 12 15 24 33
EU12 58 13 10 11 7

Alternative agriculture (Beus and Dunlap 1998 pp 598-599Conventional and

alternative agriculture :The paradigmatic roots of the debate Rural sociology )

CONVENTIONAL AGRICULTURE ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
Centralisation:-
1 .Fewer farms
2.Concentrated resources
3.National /international marketing Decentralisation:-
More farms
Dispersed resources
Local/regional markets
Individualism:-
1.Self interest
2.Reduced labor
3.Farming as business
4.External costs ignored
5Material success Community
Co-operation
Retained labor
Farming as a way of life
All costs considered
Non-material values
Specialization
1.Farming reduced to individual components
2.standardised production Holism
Farming as a system

Diversification

The dictum “Grow globally and eat locally “is the reflection of sound economy

.The food surplus and shortage in different regions has to be tackled by more

production in the deficient regions for local consumption. There is direct relation

to population growth and food insufficiency and poverty and hunger. Abraham

J(1991 Food and development .The political economy of hunger and the modern

diet .London) shows the relation like this.

Patriarchy leads to large families, and high population growth and poverty and

hunger. In families with low population growth (and small )wealth accumulates

and there is a class divided agrarian system with more surplus food and diet in

sufficient calories. He does not say the role of matriarchal system but in India this

was the reason for the class divide. The matriarchal small family and the joint

family (undivided land)and the co-operative farming of all members of the joint

family were undertaken in Kerala till recently. It was only in 1903 the partition

deed of the Kurumbatur and Punnayrkulam branches were done (though they

existed from 1790 onwards).Both the landed property was looked after by the

senior member of the Kurumbattur branch till 1903.(Also see the Nalapat saga for

the population control of matriarchal and patriarchal systems)

According to Buringh and Dudal (1987 Agricultural land use in space and time. Q

P Atkins)and Alexandros (1995 world agriculture :towards 2010 Chichester

:wiley) the cultivated land in South Asia from 1988-1990 in million hectares is

175,and further potential for arable land is 38 and a total is 213 million Ha .For

possible more efficiency of food production Smil,V(1994How many people

can the earth feed ?Population and development review 20,255 -92)suggests :-

Improved field efficiencies with better agronomic practices,higher fertilizer

uptake, reduced irrigation waste,reduse waste by post-harvest losses ,and end-use

waste, and have healthier diets having limited fat intake to 30 % of total energy

and by these means a total gain of 60 % by 2050 is aimed at. Results from

regression analysis of determinants of food supply factors in 90 developing

countries ,Bongaarta J(1995.Can the human population feed itself ?scientific

American 270(3),18-24) takes the supply factor, population density GDP per

capita for different regions.

The supply factors are

1.Proportion of land cultivated

2.cropping frequency

3.proportion of area for food crops

4.crop yield

5.Trade multiplier proportion directly consumed

6.Animal product multiplier

7.Calories per capita per day

In Asia the cropping frequency is less and crop yield isles due to this.

Malnutrition, food and famines:-Income and purchasing power, class and

geographical peculiarities and lack of awareness of nutritious food are the reasons

for malnutrition in varying proportions.

What should we eat and in what quantity and quality? What is a vulnerable group

for hunger and malnutrition and what are its causes ? How can we combat the

problem of hunger and malnutrition in an overpopulated society?

Our requirements vary with age,sex,occupation and several other

factors.Undernutrition is an inadequate intake of calories and malnutrition an

imbalance of nutrient consumption due to shortage of a key element like a vitamin

or mineral like iron etc.Deficiency can also arise due to soil peculiarity and

geological factors.



Vulnerability in social space

Entitlement relations Power/institutional relations Social relations/class relations
In social relations Vulnerability as entitlement problem Vulnerability as powerlessness Through appropriation and exploitation
Vulnerable groups The resource-poor The powerless The exploited
Critical regions Marginal regions Peripheral/dependent Crisis-prone regions

Causes of vulnerability:-

Underlying causes :- population growth ,surplus production and resource

competition, hierarchical appropriation, environmental fluctuations

Immediate causes:-Natural disasters,war,social disruption, entitlement loss

Hunger situations:-regional food shortage, household food poverty, individual

food Deprivation

Direct consequences;-economic loss, depopulation social conflict

,impoverishment ,family dispersal ,migration, limited activity,wasting,stunting

diseases and death.Each leads to the other.

The underlying processes lead to the immeadiate causes. They in turn to hunger

situation and direct consequences.

IMMEADITE HUNGER SITUATIONS DIRECT CONSEQUENCES
Natural disaster
War
Social disruption
Entitlement loss Regional food shortage Economic loss ,depopulation, social conflicts
Resource poverty
Excess tax/rent
Entitlement exclusion and failure
Ethnic, societal discriminations Household food
poverty Impoverishment
Family dispersal
Migration
Disease
Special needs
Neglect and abuse
Gender and age
Discriminations Individual food deprivation Limited activity
Wasting and stunting
Disease and death

How do people cope with a famine /


Source of adjustment Early stage of response Intermediate Final stage
Production Change cropping
Planting practices
Increase home production
Labor In search of employment In search of employment in face of expected wage rate fall. separation from family Distress migration
Assets/capita Sale of small stock (liquid easily reversible) Sale of production assets(livestock,tools,land) in a depressed market Separation of families probably permanent
Loans/transfers Interhousehold transfers and loans Credit from money lenders Donation(relief assistance)
consumption Switch in expenditure/diet composition
Reduction of consumption level
(cut frequency or size of meal or both)
Adjustment in intra-household allocations Reduction of consumption
(greater dependence on market) Reduction of consumption(survival threatened)

Food production surplus to domestic demand is an achievement a

family/society/nation /world can be proud of. The excess produce can be shared

with others. This is needed not only for appeasing hunger but for having a healthy

nutritious diet for a healthy society .That can cause cost reduction in the medical

field which is in enormous proportions at present.

Early warning systems (EWS )of famine by a state Government by climatological

observations and proper organization and collection of surplus grain in granaries

has to be viewed in this way and then we will understand the Mohenjodaro

granary in its proper perspective and the astronomical varshaphala in each village

as well. It had been a national surveillance at community level ,the supply-side

data, especially on harvest ,storage and marketing and the power of monitoring

and coping strategies of an ancient people who had knowledge of their

environment ,and geographical features. They did not have satellite remote

sensing or automated data analysis but were well informed of their environment

and geography and its implications on food and famines and natural disasters.

They were well equipped with dealing an emergency situation and had the moral

and economic strength for it traditionally.(as we have demonstrated in Indian

history chapters).The food security priorities of the NGO forum to world summit

(1996) are on strengthening of family farming decentralization of wealth and

power, agriculture and food production based on agric-ecological principles .They

even suggest the suspension of IMF /World bank structural adjustment


programmes,more participation of peoples programmes and food sovereignty take

precedence over macroeconomic policies and trade liberalizations. Hunger and

poverty and malnutrition are fundamental questions of justice. The right of every

one to life should come before the profit motive is the message.(pp 171 Peter

Atkins)

Food and health:- A high cereal diet ,with lots of vegetables and fruits lower heart

disease ,cancer and a variety of other diseases. Reduced alcohol and tobacco use

with lot of fibers in diet prevent cancers of different types. Antioxidant quality of

fruits and vegetables having vit A,C and E neutralize the degrading effects of free

radicals on cellular DNA reducing cancer risk.Grapes,tomatoes,garlic ,cruciferous

vegetables like broccoli and cauliflower,fish oil,soya,turmeric and carrots have

anticancer properties and are called functional foods.Upto 80 % bowel and breast

cancer can be preventable by diet change. Red meat and processed food without

fibres increase risk of cancer.committtee of medical aspects of food

policy(COMA) of UK recommended cereals ,fruits and vegetables to be more in

diet.(1984).

Low income and dietary health links:-When purchasing power is high people

neglects agriculture and depend upon purchasing food with high costs. And they

go for fast foods and high meat ,fibreless diet and become unhealthy. The low

income people depend upon the regional foods available and if that is not

produced in enough quantities they become malnourished.

The low consumption of fruits and vegetables

Less food rich in vegetable fiber

Low intake of antioxidant ,vitamin and mineral rich foods

Reduced growth rates in utero

High rates of female obesity

Low incidence of breast feeding

Maternal smoking during pregnancy

High salt intake of mother and hypertension

High alcohol related morbidity

Dental decay

Kwashiorkor and related diseases

Anemia

These are directly related to infant and child health in society .Social exclusion of

certain fruits by poverty and lack of purchasing power and unavailability of

nourishing food and also lack of awareness of what to eat to be well nourished are

factors to be dealt with for a healthy community living. Industrial food processing

and additives for preservation are other reasons for unhealthy food .The

traditional food processing systems of India and the simple diet was free from

these (See the interviews with the people of Punnayurkulam).The agrichemicals

like insecticides,rodenticides,herbicides,fungicides are causing concern since they

appear in the food .The side effects of drugs used to increase growth of plants is

yet another problem. These are manmade problems and is of short history. The

traditional remedies for the pest control, manure ,and preservation are safer .

The green revolution was the result of an intense plant breeding programme that

relied upon applied science and luck. It was green and related to food and plants

while that of revolution was red related to bloodshed. The HYv of wheat and rice

from Mexico and Philippines was used for it.In 1943 Rockefeller foundation

started the research on new local variety of wheat in Mexico.In 196 the research

institute International rice research institute was founded in Philippines

(IRRI)with financial backing of Rockefeller and Ford foundation. They collected

rice from all over the world ,kept them in seed bank for possible future research

and breeding .In 1966 the miracle rice IR 8 was released. It was a crossbreed

between Petan ,a tall vigorous Indonesian variety and Dee-geo-woo-gen ,a short

stiff strawed Chinese rice. The new variant showed some desirable characters. By

1981 500 semi dwarf varieties came and 150 were from IRRI. IR 64 in 1985 was

one of the most successful one with high yields and resistant to pests and

diseases.HYV s now have taken over the traditional varieties(TVs) globally by

now.

Phase 1 of Green revolution was one of euphoria in the 1960 s.The defect with

TVs was that the farmers could not store them for long times for future

use.HYVs demanded more work (10-40 % more per Ha for wheat and 30-60 %

more for rice).This was for weeding, pest control fertilizer application and

moisture control. consumers also benefited by low price. The small holders of

farms could grow more in a small plot and devote the rest of the area for cash

crops.

Phase 2 by early 1970s.Poor became poorer and there was a negative

phase.Greenrevolution in theory was to help all but in practice it cold not do that

and the rich became richer widening the gap.Rice is host to 150 diseases and

pests.TVs developed for centuries of trial and error experience was immune to

many of them but HYVs were not .In 1970 and 80s the brown leaf grasshopper

that carry the grassy stunt virus caused widespread damage to IR8 in Indonesia

and other countries. More pesticides had to be used. Negative impacts on soil

occurred. Small farmers could not cope with the loss and the cost of agriculture.

In areas of floods like Bangladesh a long-stemmed and floating varieties were

used (refer to the pokkali mentioned by farmers of Punnayurkulam)because the

people knew the nature of their locality.Shortstrawed HYV cannot be grown

there.Modernisation with tractor was an inbuilt threat for the poor. They improve

the timeliness of ploughing and harvesting operations. But displaced the laborers

and left them unemployed and small holders could not do this operation without

pooling with larger farmers who has lumpy investments. In India the irrigated

areas of Punjab was well suited for HYV of wheat and Tamil nadu for HYV of

rice. Their success in green revolution caused rural disparities of wealth in

India. The less favored areas suffered price cuts and this was corrected by self

migration of people to the areas of green revolution.(pp 224 Peter Atkins)

Phase 3 Late 1970-80.Small farmers were adapting to the HYVs and they could

afford the high expensive input of chemicals and fertilizers. More research and

more investment and food availability was replaced by the concept of entitlement

of poor farmers and to environmental variations and socioeconomic

contexts.HYV was labor-intensive and appropriate for the densely populated

south Asia and inappropriate for Africa where there is a rural labor shortage.

Phase 4 1980-90s.There was a realization that the traditional breeding methods

which had been the basic underpinning of the green revolution was nearing their

ceiling for increased production. Yield growth slowed in Punjab due to ground

water exhaustion, micronutrient depletion, built up of pests, conventional plant

breeding was unable to find the answers. Tissue culture and embryo transfers had

to be done to keep the races of plants and animals. The natural was replaced by

artificial .Green revolution shifted to gene revolution.

The spatial typology of the green revolution
Type 1.Leading innovative regions with rain fed well irrigated fields for poverty alleviation.
Type 2.Backward areas poor or exhausted soil, few water resource, dry or cold climate. For forestry and non-farm rural development
Type 3.Second generation breakthrough areas ,in crops like Kharrif sorghum in Maharashtra,ragi in Karnataka,Maize in Malawi,Zimbabwe,rice in west Africa for small farmers as an experiment
Type 4.Reasonably favored areas not suited for HYVs and where farmers had switched of to cash crops that were abandoned in type 1 areas. Like pulses and fodder. In Gujarat from wheat to mustard ,rapeseed and groundnuts and in North Arcot from rice to groundnuts and sugar.

The key components of biotechnology
Genomics. Mapping the genetic make up of living things
Bioinformatics. Assembly of genome data into accessible forms
Transformation. Insertion of new genes with useful traits
Molecular breeding. Identification and evaluation of desirable genetic traits in breeding programmes
Diagnostics. Identification of pathogens using molecular characterization
Vaccines. Development of recombinant technology DNA vaccines to control disease

Biotechnological applications in agriculture
CROP IMPROVEMENT LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT
Protoplast fusion and somatic hybridization to produce new breeds
Disease free plant propagation
Production of genetic maps
Biological nitrogen fixation
Genetically engineered male sterility ,to produce hybrids
Transgenic plants for pest resistance
In vitro germ plasma conservation ,storage and distribution Production of growth hormones using engineered bacteria
Embryo manipulation to introduce traits
Transgenic animals for better feed efficiency
New vaccines
Disease diagnosis

The threat to diversity of cultivated plants by using a single variety in vast areas

by a monoculture is there. There had been 95 % loss of farm level biodiversity in

the 20th century alone. It seems essential to protect the vast variety of genes in

traditional agriculture in the less developed countries as well as in wild plants.

The five freedoms :-

1.Freedom from thirst,hunger,malnutrition.Easy access to clean and fresh water in

adequate amounts and nutritious food for all living things


2.Freedom from discomfort. Environment suitable to their species, including

adequate shelter and comfortable rest area.

3.Freedom from pain ,injury ,disease. By prevention, rapid or early diagnosis and

Treatment

4.Freedom to express normal behaviour.By provision of sufficient space ,proper

facilities, and company of its own kind

5.Freedom from fear and distress .By ensuring that living conditions avoid mental

suffering.

The discussion from animal welfare naturally leads to animal rights and

increasing trends to vegetarianism .Singer (1998)reported that in next few years

vegetarianism will prevail and meat eating will be abandoned as tobacoo

smoking. The principal motives for vegetarianism on the increase are the

moral/spiritual, health reasons,ecological,taste reasons. In India once a

predominantly vegetarian nation, with occasional meat in diet there is an

increasing trend in nonvegetarian food after the western rule and by the 1970’s

only Punjab,Rajasthan and Gujarat has more than 60 % vegetarians in rural/urban

settings. I Kerala 29 % rural and only 10 % urban people are vegetarians at

present and this trend shows though considered most literate Kerala people are not

aware of the new trends in the west concerning vegetarian food and its

acceptability over nonvegetarian due to several reasons –both ecological, moral

and health related .

Factors affecting our food choice:-

1.Geoenvironmental. The agroecosystems,time of day ,season,regionality of food

culture,spatiotempoaral and hierarchical diffusion of food habits

2.Socioeconomic: Religions,taboo,social customs,ethnicity,income,social

class, household composition, knowledge of nutrition, attitude to food related

health risk, advertising mass communications,travel,retail system, moral values

3.Physiological.Heredity,allergy,therapeutic diets, taste ,accessibility,sex,body

size, age

Classification of different types of eating:

1.A meal:-structured event ,a social occasion, when food is eaten according to

certain rules

2.Snack .Unstructured food event without rules of combination or sequence

Types of meal:

1 Major meal/main meal. First course of cereals (CH) the central course of

vegetables of different types prepared in different way(culinary science) with

gravy ,dhals and pulses and also curd/butter etc..Finally a sweet .(may have

fish, eggs or meat for nonvegetarians)

2.A minor or secondary meal. Eg Breakfast

3.Less significant meal.Eg tea and biscuits .


A complete meal is that which contains all nutrients like CH,Fats and Proteins and

vitamins and minerals. If protein,CH and fats present but no vitamins or minerals it is an

incomplete meal. If there is protein ,fat and vitamins and minerals but no starch ,plant

proteins and dietary fibres it is a less balanced meal. The food without animal protein and

fat is a vegetarian meal .

Apple is a high quality snack .Apple and a chocolate makes a mixed quality snack and

chocolate alone is a low quality snack .

Daily pattern of meal intake in sample of American adolescents (1989-91)

1.Three meals with or without snacks 58.4 %

2.Breakfast,lunch with or without snacks 5.5

3.lunch,dinner with or without snacks 13.4

4.Breakfast and dinner with or without snacks 14.4

5One meal and snack 5.4

6.One meal and snack 2.9

(compare with Punnayurkulam interviews and the food of local people as told by William

Logan )

Dietary pattern and food including proper nutrients is a culiery science closely followed

and researched by the Indian women of antiquity to this day. This depends on the female

household head and her knowledge, freedom and skills in processing and cooking

etc,gardening and making fruits and vegetables in her gardens .

Agricultural decision making was as much of a woman’s area as it was that of man

since she was also participant of rice and vegetable growing and knew all aspects of

cultivation, season etc and this gave lot of freedom for agrarian women than their modern

counterparts of India .They had access to irrigation, spring water,rivers,land,cow and

cattle,sheep,goats and other domestic animals,poultry,horticulture crop produce, trees and

credit systems ,agricultural labour,team work and farm inputs and the monetary benefits

there from .This was so in Ethiopia and Tanzania surveys of 1998 by FAO.The effect of

combined income of man and woman in the household had several positive effects in

society as a family productive unit of agriculture. This also was found the same in other

regions like Kenya,Taiwan,Guatemala,Brazil etc .The household calorie

level, expenditure on food, child welfare, and child survival depends on the share of

woman have in the total family income and her decisions in family matters of food and

health and population control and agricultural decisions of production for sustenance of

family.

The sex ratio of India (1901-91)

1991 census show 407 million girls and women and 439 million boys and men .For every

1000 men 927 women. This is called the sex ratio. India is having the lowest proportion

of women population in the world today. The sex ratio is falling gradually from 1901.

1901 972
1911 964
1921 955
1931 950
1941 945
1951 946
1961 941
1971 930
1981 934
1991 927

Haryana (865 as ratio) has the lowest ratio in the world ,succeeded by parts of

Gujrat,North western Madhyapradesh,border districts of Rajasthan, and western Uthar

Pradesh .Kerala has a better sex ratio. The central role of women in the food chain is now

receiving more attention by the academicians .The matriarchal pattern of society and its

agrarian joint family system needs to be studied in this light and not under the western

nuclear family concept .For co-operative farming and for labor needed for various

agrarian operations, joint family and joint communes or society and common land

holdings are more suitable .It increase productivity ,and production by common co-

operative work which is cost-effective in itself.

The aim of any community development project and National Extension science is to

Provide nutritious food,clothing ,shelter,health by clean water and environment,free

education for all ,but along with these basic materialistic needs a change in the outlook of

the citizens and rulers for development of the full potential of human resources and a

unified co-operative effort to develop the nation and its environment and in the long run

,that of the entire world.Unless this is not achieved,the goal of welfare state with equal

opportunities for all citizens will never be achieved.The process of transformation in the

socioeconomic life of villages leading to growth –economic,manpower resources –for

rejuvenatation and revitalization of nation.

1 Elimination of poverty ,disease and ignorance is in other words socioeconomic

growth,Perfect physical,mental and intellectual health ,and educating every citizen .

2.To infuse spirit of brotherhood and co-operation is equivalent to instill the spirit of

Humanity and spirit of a unified nation and that is Indianness for an Indian.Not based on

any other factor like caste,creed,language ,religion or political affiliations etc.

3.Seeking self-help is learning self-reliance

4.Sufficient scientific knowledge has to be taken to the most distant neighbour’s door –

that is to the most distant village –and for that one needs knowledge and communication

skills and a spirit of unity and co-operation and compassion for all.

For these to be achieved we need the Triple tenets.

1.The Faith in ourselves
That we can Do it
We can Train to do it.
We can Create conditions to achieve it

2.Triple character of Rights
To Live
To learn
To do duties

3.Rules of business
Elevate
Integrate
Standardize

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