Dr Suvarna Nalapat's Blog.(Note that maps and diagrams are not included in this blog and the tables might not have come correctly in html file )
Malabar as seen by Sir William Logan
Sitting in the collector’s bungalow in East Hill Calicut ,on 7th January 1887 William
Logan wrote preface to his volume 1 of Malabar Manual. He wrote:-“In any descriptive
and historical account of the Malayali race,-the position, namely ,which was occupied for
centuries on centuries by the Nayar caste in the civil and military organizations of the
province –a position unique and so lasting that but for foreign intervention there seems no
reason why it should not have continued to endure for centuries on centuries to
come. Their function in the body politic have been tersely, described in their own
tradition as the eye ,the hand ,and the order ,and to the present day we find them spread
throughout the length and breadth of the land ,but no longer—I could almost say, alas—
preventing the rights (of all classes )from being curtailed or suffered to fall into
disuse……..To understand Malabar and the Malayali race aright, it is above all things
necessary to know this central fact –this distribution of authority –this “Parliament” as it
was called so long ago as 28th May 1746 by one who has settled in the country and
watched its working –this chastiser of the unwarrantable acts of Ministers of state –this
all powerful influence tending to the maintenance of customary observances –should be
firmly grasped by the mind”
He continues that Bentham’s dictum of “The greatest possible happiness of the
greatest possible number” ,,the attainment of this modern aim was advanced greatly by
this Malayali race whom he describes as “A Hindu community of the purest and most
characteristic type”. He says in the Indian peninsula this (Malabar)will be the best
province which will yield highest yielding and interesting information and to do justice to
that ,the store should be accumulated by a native of the soil itself. He notices that the
existing temples of Malayali dates back to 8th century or beyond and the earliest
Muhammadan tombstone at Panthlayini Kollam is of 14th century. More interesting is
that he records having seen Nair women perched on wheels in their paddy fields and
vigourously removing water collected in the fields .
The best available earliest records of the British India on Malabar is that of Logan and
we need not go to any other sources .The eyes of this foreign-born
collector who was particular about recording everything that he thought important has
done it for us..This chapter is the material of Logan from his two volumes .(apart from a
few comments I make to explain certain aspects)
The name of the place is Malayam (hill country)and the people who rule this area is
called the Malayali(Tamil =Malai aluvar or kings of hills).Mala is Dravidian and Ali also
is Dravidian.This when made into Malavaaram(the sides of the hill) and converted by a
change in V to B as the Muslims pronounce became Malabaara and Malabar. From time
of Cosmos Indicopleutus(AD 522-547) upto 11th to 12th century was called simple Male
by the navigators of Arab origin and seafaring people, who took spices and pepper .The
different pronunciations they used included
Malibar,Manibar,Mulibar,Munibar,Melibar(Marco
polo) Minibar,Milibar,Minubar,Melibaria,Malabria etc showing how a name can be
changed by different pronunciations and languages. The correct term is Malayam or
Malavara in the local language Malayalam and Tamil ( The Malaya mountains also
having the same name ) meaning the hilly sides ruled by kings of hills and
forests(Girivarga,Vanavasi kings or Kadavaa).The name is a geographic feature of the
region which is also called Keralam by the natives. The term bar means a coast in
Renaudts translation of The ancient accounts of China and India by two Mohammedan
travelers in the 9th century AD.
The boundaries of Malabar in Logans time is as follows:
1.Malabar proper.150 miles between northern latitude 10 .15’and 12.18’and Eastern
longitude 75.14’-76.56’
Boundaries .North South Canara districts,East Coorg,Mysore,Nilgris,Coimbatore,South
Native state of Cochin,west Arabian sea.
2.19 isolated territories scattered,15 of them in Native state of Cochin and four in
Travancore .
3.two detached bits land in Travancore Thangasseri and Anjengo
4.Four inhabited and 10 uninhabited islands of Laccadives ,Agatti,Kavaratti,Androth
,Kalpeni being inhabited.
5.Isolated Minicoy island (Menakayath was old name)and attached to it a small island
Viringilli used for quarantine purposes by the islanders.
Thus 4 degree latitude and longitude was covered by Malabar, 6002 sq mile area roughly
without adding the outlying islands. The Wynad Taluk lies above ghats and is a portion of
the Mysore plateau.On the southern slope of Nilgiri range lie two forest clad valleys –the
silent valley and the Attapady valley which belongs to Malabar.One of the most striking
features of the country is the Palaghat pass.A complete opening 20 miles across the great
backbone of the peninsula. How the break occurred is not known. It seems like a natural
agency broke it and the mountain look thrown back and heaped up ,as if some
overwhelming deluge had burst through sweeping them to left and right.(This description
seems very important to me since it denotes the deluge of the Matsyavathara when the
Dravida king SatyavrathaManu lived )Through the gap the southwest winds bring
pleasant moist air and showers to thirsty plains of Coimbatore.Through this the Carnatic
(again see the usage. The Tamil country beyond Palghat pass is called Carnatic in Logan’s
times).is linked to Kerala.Through this the produce of the eastern and western provinces
are exchanged. This is of great economic value to the region. Gentler slopes, rolling down
and gradually widening valleys closely cultivated and nearer the seaboards the low
laterite tablelands end abruptly in cliffs and give place to rice-plains and coconut-fringed
backwaters. The backwaters, the streams, and the numerous canals that connect them afford
cheap means of communication for the local people and used for trade and commerce and
for irrigation. Coastline show evidence of steady but slow encroachment of sea upon land
.The prevailing littoral current is from North to south. It is a branch of ocean current
which sweeps from Madagascar and East African coast and impinges on Malabar coast at
a point little north to the Northernmost point of the North Malabar where it branches into
two ,the main branch go down the coast and the minor go north. Sand thus travels from
north to south and hollow out bays .Seaboard is open except to the North at the island
Hill of Mount Deli (855ft high) a well-known landmark to mariners. From that to Calicut
are low cliffs and long reaches of sands. Beyond Calicut to the south, the shore is a single
long unbroken stretch of sand. The experienced native mariners can tell the distance from
land at any point of the coast by the number of fathoms they find as sounding with the
lead.Laccadive and Minicoy are coral sand islands and limestone formed from it. Their
highest point is not above 30 ft above sea level. The islands are crescent moon shaped with
ample lagoon enclosed by coral reefs. Lagoons with intense bright colors of
cobalt,green,yellow and crimson ,by living corals and fish that dart is radiantly
beautiful. The islands have dense vegetation, coconut trees and breadfruit and lime trees
in cultivated parts but elsewhere it is only jungle and shrubs and few screw pines.
Mountains:
The western ghats or Sahyan 3000-5000 ft above sea level on Coorg and Wynad ,with one
or two peaks above 6000-8000 ft.On the Nilgiri –Kunda face, is over 6000 ft.On South
Nilgiri falls to 4000ft and Vadamalai (north)and Thenmalai (south)on either side of
Palghat gap.Anamalai on south is 4000-5000 ft.
The peaks of western ghat:
Veidal(Vethaala) Mala (in the name of a mighty robber Veda kumar or prince of the
Vedda)with a foundation of his old house, and a history that people by treachery killed
him and his descendents except a woman whose descendents are still traced.(In Logans
time).In April ,May and October thunderstorms of terrific violence happen there.(in
relation to the two monsoons)
Brahmagiri in which Coorg lies.
Banasur/Balasur peak ,Naduvaram peak, with a trigonometric survey station,Tanotemala
overhanging Thamarasery,Elambileri peak,(best coffee producing part of Wynad),vellera
mala (coffee producing),Vavulmala (camel hill)due to resemblance to camel hump.
Nilgiri peak,Mukurti peak,Anginda peak,Karimala,(highest peak in north of
Palghat),kalladikod peak,(the stormiest peak in Malabar with proverb that if
kalladikodan goes black with anger, will not the Karuga river be swollen?
Elimala/Deli mountain. The landmark for mariners for earliest times.VascodaGama ‘s
pilots said the natives call it a mountain of the rat(Eli/Mooshaka).It is pronounced with a
cerebropalatal and becomes Ezhimala the land of the sapthasaila or seven hills ,(The
same as Sapthasaila of Andhraka people .This is an important point I want to stress for
historical reasons.)and has 7 peaks and in Marco Polo’s accounts it is Eli .Ibn Batuta calls
it Hili and as the Eli Kovilakam,the second oldest of the palaces of the ancient line of
Kolathiri princes .(This is important ,since the first line of the Eli ,or Mooshakavansa
were the line living in Perumpadappa and Punnayurkulam and the 5 branches of the
Thalappally kovilakam or Thalapalli Mooshaka vansa , and its branch Eliankattil
kovilakam at that time)
Chekkunnu,Urolmala,Pandalur,Pranakod,Anangamala,and
cannanore,Darmapattanam,mananthody,purakkad ,pukkunnu,kurnad,kurachimala,and
Palghat fort where elevated survey stations exist.
In Logans time Ponnani water communication had become defective and a factory was
not built there. The Chettvai was contended for by the foreigners.Thangassery and
Anjengo were also used by them. Why Ponnani lost its importance after being contested
and won over by the Zamorins from the Kolathiri with help of Kunjali Markkar and his
father? That is a question we will leave behind for now .
The other rivers were Nileswaram,which flows through Canara and Kerla,Elimala
river, the brackish creaks of it being abode of crocodiles (The vehicle of the varuna and of
Vettaikorumakan ,paradevatha of Eliyankad and Kerala kings).A two mile long canal
built by Aliraja (in 1766) husband of Bibi of Kannanore,while managing Kolathiri
domains for Hyder Ali.It links Eli river to backwaters at mouth of Valarpattanam
,Taliparamba rivers and give uninterrupted water transport in all seasons.Taliparamba
river ,bending to north and passing under the guns of a ruined fort of Kolathiri suddenly
turn to old bazaar(Payanghadi)and join Valarpatanam puzha and large fertile garden is
formed by the banks of it. The valarpatanam puzha has its banks the old
Surrukunadapuram(Sreekandapuram)built by Valabha and Sreekanda two brothers of the
Mooshaka dynasty, where an old Muslim mosque exist and its
emporium of trade was from coorg and sandal forests of Nilgiri and mysore.To this place
Ibn batuta traveled from mount Eli in one day by water.Muhammedan settlement is at
Eroocur and trade route to Mysore and coorg is through this village. Up stream at
Iritty,the trade route via Perambadi ghat is a massive bridge .At mouth of
Valarpattanam(Vallabha pattanam)at its mouth is a well-preserved fort on a cliff and
further west in an island in the brackwater is a fort called Madakkara.The valarpattanam
belonged to Kolathiri and Madayikara to the British.(These are ancient sites built by
Vallabha and his brother Sreekanda mentioned in Mooshakavansa kavya .Valabha’s
name is also seen in Mahavansa of Ceylon )Anjarakandi river and the island
Dharmapattanam is connected to Venkat by boat and the company had a pepper trade
outpost there.Tellichery river and Kodoli river ,Mahe river,Kotta river,(the haunt of
pirates called kottkaal Kunjali Marakkar according to Logan)Vadakara canal
partly natural and partly manmade,Payoli canal and Agalapuzha,are
mentioned.Agalapuzha water level does not rise much in floods but that of Kotta rise so
high to threaten the beach and this difference in level necessitates a water-lock at the
entrance of payola canal from kotta river.Elathur river is connected to Kallai river, and
backwaters and to Beypore river by the Connnolly canal.(Completed in 1848 by
Conolly,collector of Malabar)At low tide water is only a few inches. This was built under
special scheme of Mr. Greame (suggested in 1822)for inland water transport from
Travancore upto the north .
Beypore river is the only river in North Malabar which brings considerable water from
the crest of ghat mountains. One branch arise from Kunda mountain in Nilgiri plateau
,and another from south-east wynad.The branch is gold river. And flows south of Karkur
pass, the other the Chaliyar or Chola river, from crest of wynad hills close to a footpath
known as Choladi pass ,meet in midst of Nilambur teak plantations, and reach Beypore to
the Arabian sea. Even in dry season boats can ascend the stream as far as Mambat under
the shadow of the camel hump(vavuli mala) range. Here and in Arikot are Mohammedan
settlers. This and all streams of Malbar were known to be auriferous from earliest times
and in each annual flood the local people try to get gold from its sands.Kadalundi river
from western slopes of Nilgiri and silent valley range and in high tides boats can go upto
Malappuram and even further but in dry season this is not possible.Upto 1857 collectors
tried to make canals to connect it with backwaters and creeks of Ponnani river
.
What was the reason for succeeding in this attempt?
Logon writes:-
A short length below the surface a bed of clay or mud was found which oozed and filled
canal completely to prevent passage of boats. It was of the same nature as found forced
upwards from the bottom of the sea ,by submarine volcanic action, or by subterraneous
pressure of water from the large inland backwaters ,forms mud banks or mud bays in
which at one or two places on the coast ,(notably at Narakkal and Alleppey)ships can ride
in safety and load and discharge cargo throughout the monsoon season. The same
difficulty was noticed in Calicut in making a short canal from kallayi river to the main
bazaar.(This is important because it shows from Calicut to Ponnani is new land reclaimed
form sea, probably by a natural phenomena and from Ponnani /Malappuram /Calicut the
area was once occupied by sea and it is a relatively new addition to the geography of old
Malabar .(The fact that cheru and chali are two terms for mud and these are seen in many
place names of the area and also in Cheranaad/cherikkal is to be noted)
Ponnani river is the longest river of the Malabar proper. The main stream from the arid
plains of Coimbatore (the place where the Cheras themselves ruled)and there are sand
shoals which cause floods during monsoons. The riverside portion of Ponnani town is
always under threat of sea erosion. The town is preserved and protected by Groynes for
the maintenance of which a special voluntary cess is paid by the mercantile
community. It has a navigable creek to Tirur.And to south, connected to backwaters of
Velliyankode and further south boat traffic is possible upto Trivandrum.(200 miles)The
most urgent need is to widen the cut about 2 miles in length ,connecting the Ponnani river
with Velliyamkode backwater. The cut at present is only 15 ft wide and the water is only a
few inches deep in low tide. The veliyamkode backwaters opens to the sea and its opening
is maintained by the force with which the tide ebbs and flows. the Chowghat backwater
and creek is about 15 miles. Two ridges running parallel to coastline seem to shut off
drainage from both west and the east. This hollow is filled with freshwater in the rains and
two rude embankments of wattle and mud are made at the end of the rains to keep in the
fresh and to prevent the salt water influx which would destroy the heavy rice-crops raised
within the enclosure. The passage of boats is maintained by sliding them with extra help
over the obstacles on the unctuous muds of which the embankments are formed. At
the southern end the backwaters join the Chetwai river of 6 miles entirely within British
territory. Two miles of it lie in native Cochin state territory. At the end of the 8 mile long
Chetuvai is a lake that is partly natural and partly artificial. It is the Trichur Enamaakakl
lake. Of 25 sq miles and is a singular effort of human industry against the forces of nature
which the cultivation of its beds demands. From the subsidence of the floods of one year
to the commencement of the following rains, the space of time is barely sufficient for the
garnering of a crop. At the close of the rains the water in the lake ,which is protected from
tidal influences by a masonry dam at Enamakkal,is drained of by ceaseless labor day
and night with Persian wheels aided not infrequently now-a-days by patent pumps driven
by portable steam engines ,whose fires glow weirdly across the waste of waters on dark
nights while the incessant throb and rattle of the engines and machinery strive hard to
dispel any illusions. Every foot of ground that can be thus reclaimed is protected by
fences of wattle and mud and is planted up with well grown rice seedlings. Spaces are left
between the fields ,and into these channels the water drawn from the fields is poured ,so
that boats can be employed for visiting the different fields ,the dry beds of which lie some
3 or 4 ft below the level of the water in the canals. In dry weather the lake presents a
magnificent level green expanse of the most luxurious growing rice ,the pleasant effect to
the eye is heightened by contrast with the snowy plumage of innumerable cranes and
other aquatic birds which here revel in a continual feast.
With the early thunder harbingers of the south west monsoon in April re-commences the
struggle with the slowly but steadily rising floods. Numberless Persian wheels bristle in
their bamboo frameworks for the contests with the threatening floods ,and as the season
advances thousands of the population, many of them good caste Nayar women ,,are
perched high above the scene on those machines continuing the day and night struggle
with the rising floods for the preservation of their ripening crops. The bulwarks of the
fields are frequently breached and the unmatured crop drowned. Often a large area has to
be reaped by simply heading the stalks from boats. But as a rule, an enormously rich crop
rewards this remarkable industry. A small portion only of this lake lies in British
territory. The major portion belongs to the Cochin state ,and as already observed ,a
masonry dam at Enamakkel is necessary to maintain the level of freshwater in the lake
and to keep out saltwater. The original dam seems to be formed sometimes during the 18th
century by the united efforts of the zamorin and the Cochin Rajas. They eructed an
embankment of hewn stone above 200 ft long across the backwater of Enamakkel.In
1802 Asst collector Mr. Drummond ,under the erroneous expectation of benefiting the
neighboring lands ,caused the dam to be partially destroyed.(This year in 2009 ,the
authorities destroyed the bund of Viyyam kaayal for fear of a popular uprise ,the people
taking upper hand in administration to cause destruction of next years prospect of raising
a good crop of paddy which is saddening to note )But the consequence was
that a large area of land fell out of cultivation owing to the influx of salt water. Various
attempts were made especially in 1823 and 1842 to construct the dam on its original
plan. Project for a new dam lower down the dam at Chetwai was proposed and between
1855 and 1858 preparation for constructing this work were undertaken. The idea was
abandoned ,however, after Rs 35000 had been spent on it and since then the original dam
has been annually patched up at the joint cost of British and Cochin Governances. Three
major branches of Kaveri (kabbani,Rampur,and Bavani river )originate in Malabar. The
first two are in Wynad and Bhavani rise from Kunda mountains flow through Attapadi
valley where it is joined by several branches largest called Siruvani or small Bhavani .It
rise on the forest clad mountains of northern edge of Palghat gap .Acquiring a considerable
volume in a short amphitheatre of mountains on the vast crest of the ghats it pours itself
in a magnificent cataract ,said to be 2000 ft high ,over a precipitous ledge of rock which
hems in the Attapadi valley on the south. At the top of the ledge of rock is a deep pool in
the bed of the stream called Muthukkulam which is regarded with superstitious awe with
local people and about which many wonderful stories are told. It is said to be fathomless
and people declare that extraordinary and tremendous noises do at times issue from it
,and roll cracking among the rocks.
About the geology ,Logon says the midrib of south India ,which stretch from low-lying
gap in Palghat ,below the Nilgiris ,to within 15 miles of cape Comorin.The mountain land
does not run down the middle of peninsula but keeps to the westward. So that there is a
broad stretch of low country on the Madura and Tinnevelly side ,while that of Travancore
is narrow. Then the mountains suddenly drop to the east, and send long spurs down to
western coast .In Madura and Tinneveli a southerly prolongation of the wide plain of
Carnatic that stretch round by cape Comorin and join the narrower ,though rather
elevated ,low country of Travancore ,Cochin and Malabar. The narrower ,higher land of
west coast presents traces of a plateau or terraced character (seen best in Malappuram in
Ernad Taluk,and in Chirakkal Taluk north and south of Taliparamba river reaching from
Mount Deli upto Elathur river mouth.Mr King observed the plateaus of Beypore and
Calicut and it is due to denudation of an original planed down terrace of gneiss into
detached plateaus ,the upper surfaces of which are altered and laterized to a certain depth.
FN pp 19 vol 1)which is displayed at Trivandrum and northwards to Cochin into Malabar
country. South of Triivandrum these marks gradually disappear the last trace being at
plateau bordering the seashore at Kolachal.This even surfaced tract of the country is 150-
200 ft above sea level and it touches the shores in cliffs or headlands at two or three
points ,at warkilli,Paupancheri hill southwest of Thiruvananthapuram.
To an observer traveling to Trivandrum across Ariamkow pass from Tinnevelly ,the
change from parallel ridges and broken form of the lower hilly country to comparatively
smooth downs of Trivandrum is striking .Northwards from Trivandrum are the absolutely
lowland on the sea level.(from Quilon to Alleppy,backwaters of Cochin,Trichur
Enamakkel lake, backwaters connected to Veliyamkod,between Kotta and Elathur
rivers,Agalapuzha,backwaters of Thaliparamba and Valarpattanam puzha.)
The rock formation are gneiss series.(one of the oldest known formation of terra
firma.The surface of Wynad in 1882 showed that it was formed and exposed ,after 2000
ft of gneiss was slowly worn away between the Nilgiris ad the Vellaramala for a very long
period of time.)
Quilon beds are of Eocene age.
Warkkili beds of upper tertiary age. equivalent to Cuddalore sandstones of Coromandel.
Warkkili beds are seen in Beypore and Cannanore (a quarter mile from the
sea)Travancore is rich in garnetiferous gneiss.red,blue and yellow sapphire and jacinth
are seen in garnet sands and is common in seashore.Titaniferous iron is seen in
seasand.bright scarlet ,black,purple,yellow and white sands of all these minerals and
ordinary silica is seen in Cape comorin.
Nilgiris has massive grey gneiss with crystallized quartz rock very like reefs of
veinquartz.The beds are felspathic ,feldspar occurring in quartz giving a granite
appearance. In Nell ore similar rocks are found. But it is fine compact quartzite while in
Trivandrum it is not n compact form.Felspathic quartose gneiss is charged with garnets.
Iron is less in the gneiss but abundant iron is seen in weathered gneiss and other
formations. The abundant ferruginous matter must come from the weathering of garnets.
The gneiss lie in 2 to 3 parallel folds of west-north-west and east-south-east. More
towards the north in Cochin territory and Peermad.Between Trivandrum and Tinnevelly
(12-20 miles inland)the dip is high to south-south-west terraced plateau and or among the
parallel dips the first north-north-east dip. Then again a high south-south-west .They are at
synclinal angle at east and anticlinal at west angles. At kurtallum on Tinnevalley side the
rise from synclinal well displayed and in their strike west-north west ward into broad
mountain land ,beds of which take part in great anticlinal displayed at great flat arch of
Peermad strata. This is the south part of Ariankow.
Nature of gneiss of Trivandrum,Cochin and Malabar to easily decompose to white
,yellow or reddish felspathic clayey rock which become laterites.
Laterite contain ferruginous debris. May be marine,fluviatile or sub aerial action and
alteration on gneiss .In Malabar and Simhala it is called Kabuk or kaaavu .The warkkili
bed and rock formation is rich in ferruginous laterite of three types
1.superficial ferruginously cemented debris
2.ferruginous clayey reddish brown colored irregularly vesicular and vermiform
scabrous rockforming uppermost part of werkkili beds
3.altered decomposed gneiss called Kabuk,or lateritized gneiss. This shows original
xalline structure and constitution.
400 ft above sea level the alteration starts. Lower down at 150-200 ft above sea, a better
defined belt of weathered laterised gneiss with frequent unaltered rocks. This is a country
of undulating downs with uniform stretches of forest lands (without thick and lofty
jungle).Occasionally with plateau surface and low flat topped hills. Indented with deep
river valleys and streams and even with backwaters having high and steep shores.
Malabar show the plateau character of lateritic gneiss. It is made of weathered
decomposed gneiss .The sand is red peroxide of iron changing to brown peroxide. The
warkkili beds have argillaceous limestones ,a kind of dolomite ,in which a marine fauna of
univalve shells(Orbolite malabarica) having an ecocene facies was found 40 ft below the
laterite to Quilon which is really the upper part of the next group.
Logon says in Malabar on the western side ,is an old marine terrace ,which must be of
later date than the warkkili beds.(upper tertiary stage as cuddalore sandstone but
sandstone patches are very little and that too towards the southern tip nearer to
Kanyakumari )He calls it late tertiary or post-pleiocene and he thinks at some time in the
past the Indian land raised straight from sea by Western ghats and he thinks of the story
of reclamation of the land of Kerala by Parasurama.A terraced form of marine
denudation of the mountain in very gradual steps with weathering is a possibility.
Recent deposits are only at the coast and alluvial beds of rivers in coastal area.
Natives classification of geological types of soil:-
Pasima:-rich heavy,clayey tenacious soil
Pasimarasi:-the above mixed with sand, and of loamy character
Rasi:-sandy soil.
Each subdivided into 3 so that there are 9 types of soil. This is used for revenue
assessment of rice-lands by natives .The Hindu sasthra says:-one cubic kol or yard of
earth being excavated, soil of the best description (pasima)if put back into the pit thus
excavated ,will suffice more than to fill it. Loamy(pasimarasi)will exactly fill
it. sandy(rasi)will not suffice to fill it.
Rasi soil in coast for coconut farms. subsoil water easy for its roots to reach
Uplands with detrital laterite are gravel quarries and are laterite gneiss.
The most productive grain land is in Wallavanad Taluk where laterite is scarce and where
pasima lands are met with. On mountain slopes where gneiss does not crop up ,an
immense store of rich black mould by decayed vegetable matter.
Climate and natural phenomena in Malabar described by Logan.
Uniform annual mean temperature on sea-coast 81 degree Fahr.Never rise above 90 and
falls below 70.This is not due to great altitude of sun though the altitude of sun is always
great here, and its hours of shining comparatively long throughout the year,maximum of
12 hours 35 mts in latter half of June to minimum of 11 hrs 35 mts in latter half of
December. The reason for heat is the superheated surface soil. The surface radiates the
heat both at day and night and maintains the comparatively high temperature.
Another reason is the water vapour .The Madagascar water current that impinges at little
north of Malabar brings with its atmosphere saturated with moisture.Seabreeze saturated
with water vapour blow steadily for several hours in dry weather. During
June,July,August,the SW Monsoon winds blow night and day off the ocean and rolls up
before it dense masses of vapour.The superheated sand radiates heat and that instead of
radiating to space absorbed by aqueous vapour and acts like a blanket ,preventing earth
from losing heat, at night and greater the heat,greater the capacity of atmosphere to
absorb moisture. A cloudless night in Malabar does not betoken a cool night .
These have its advantages. The ocean never become overheated like the land and ocean
breezes blow throughout year, in particular the south west monsoon wind, are cool
winds. The temperature of atmosphere is low in that time, though the sun at that time
attains its greatest elevation in heavens and for months the clouds shelters earth from
sun’s direct rays.
The dense unbroken clouds in monsoon by condensed water vapour and rains maintains
the uniformity of temperature. To convert water into steam requires large amount of
heat, and the reverse process, condensation of water vapour to rain, necessitates large
liberation of a large store of heat. So on as water is in gas form heat is insensible and on
being liberated it helps to keep up temperature of air .Evaporation from ocean and rivers
play part in reducing temperature on land. Vegetation thrive on such a climate ,and there
is luxuriant grass,shrubs,tree in Malabar .The mountains cools down the winds and in
Palghat gap hot winds pass through it and cause a check in vegetation in dry months. Even
there the balance is maintained with longer sea breezes that keep fresh nights, cool
mornings even in March ,April the hottest months of the year. The tropical nature with lot
of moisture in air is congenial to health of man and animals as it is favorable to
vegetation. All articles are weathered and powdered and lost due to moist
weather.(mildew,rust,etc).There is extreme regularity to the seasons. On 22nd of March at
2 PM the first shower falls. This was known to the locals and Logan saw that it was right
and he knew that it was not a guess .He says that day being vernal equinox and 2 PM
is the hour at which the battle of sea breeze and land wind begins. The first distant rumble
of thunder along ghats is heard at that time. Nature’s pendulum commences to swing back
as sun cross equator into northern hemisphere. Throughout seasons with a regularity to
months and almost to days and hours ,perfectly astonishing to people
(Europeans)accustomed to live in less settled climates.
The rotation of seasons:-To end of March and beginning of April first distant mutterings
of thunder heard among hills. End of May to beginning of June SW monsoons obtain
s mastery, regular rains begin with electric storms of violence. The roar of thunder is
continuous and for minutes together and blaze of many-colored lightening incessant. In
1873 one of such thunder peals lasted for 35 minutes. Once thunderstorms cease the winds
settle, steadily in west, as season progress, it veers a point northward to west. It blows
steadily from southwest. The reason for movement to north is the ocean current which at
this season is from north to south. At end of September SW monsoon dies away ,natures
pendulum swings back, and royal battle between aerial currents again starts. In October
NE monsoon become strong(land wind)and with it rain become less frequent and the
country begins to dry up, and by end of December the dry weather has set in. With vernal
equinox the period of disturbance of sea wind and land wind again sets in.
M’Crindle’s translation of Periplus Maris Erythraei about the SW monsoon and its
importance to navigators:-:The whole round of travel from Kane to Endaimon Arabia
used to be performed in small vessels which kept close to shore and followed its
windings but Hippalos was the pilot who first ,by observing the bearings of the port and
configuration of the sea ,discovered the direct course across the ocean. Whence as ,it
seems ,our own Etesians are blowing ,a periodical wind from ocean likewise blows in the
Indian sea, this wind which is the southwest, is it seems, called in these seas Hippalos (after
the first pilot who first discovered the passage by means of it).From the time of this
discovery, to the present day, the merchants who sail for India either from Kane or as
others do from Aromata,if Limurike be their destination, must often change their track, but
if they are bound for Borugaza or Skythia they are not retarded for more than three
days., after which committing themselves to the monsoon which blows right in the
direction of their course ,they stand far out to the sea, leaving all the gulfs we have
mentioned in the distance.” It is generally accepted that Hippalos was discovered only
in 1st century AD.(See that Hippalos is Greek for horse, or the name for Aswins and this
was discovered by Indians from Vedic times and mentioned in all scriptures and Greeks
knew about it only in 1st century AD).Even after Hippalos in first century AD Gama took
14 centuries to know root of monsoon winds which itself is proof for the fact that the
European sailors of Greece ,Rome etc did not master or know monsoon wind paths at
all. The knowledge was heard knowledge not experienced or mastered one. Because
monsoon is not a feature of Greece or Rome but of Monsoon India .There is no other
reason for this.)
Rain and storms:-Rain and floods are frequent. On 19th and 20th of May 1882 a heavy rain
registered.18-25 inches in 24 hours in Calicut.In 1871 6 inches per day for 6 consecutive
days. But floods do little damage.(Please do note this point .Because now floods cause
damage .The reasons we have to discuss in another chapter.).The rivers have in the
course of ages worn down for themselves deep rain beds ,which contain all ordinary
floods and the common laterite soil of the country is so porous that within half an hour of
the heaviest shower the roads are dried up but for the dripping trees and bushes there will
be little sign to tell that a heavy rain had just ceased.
Of unusual storms there are but few records. The western ghats prevent or disperse any
cyclonic tendency of winds but the squalls during southwest monsoon are terrific in
violence and do damage to ships .The squalls are accompanied by mountainous waves
and winds with these waves smash the strongest cables of the best equipped ships. With
anchors gone ,the ships try to set sail, but after the squalls the wind has a lull, while the sea
run as high as ever. The ship drift slowly into breakers and the most skillful seamen
attempt to beach the ship instead of trying them to take out to sea.
Great storm on 16,17,18th of April 1847 originated in Laccadive islands and damaged
Kavarathi,swept over kalpeni and Androth and Agati was beyond the circle of its
violence. Of 90000 coconut trees in kalpeni and Androth ,the hurricane left only 700 in
Kalpeni and 8000 in Androth.Kalpeni was partially submerged and drinking water in
wells spoilt, and stores of food and houses destroyed. Of 1600 people in Kalpeni ,450
survived but only 300-400 were perished after the storm in a famine, and others had
escaped and left the island or lost in storm.96 males and a few females from Agatti tried
to escape in two boats and perished in storm. The effects of the storm was felt from
Cannanore to Chetwai.
1.Destroyed Caannanore custom house.
2rushed up the kotta river destroyed palliyad dam and cultivation above it over 2 miles
from mouth of the river
3Breached the new work on Connnoly canal at Calicut
4.At Parapanangadi and Thanur private persons suffered from the rise of the sea
5.The wave rushed up the Velliyankod kaayal and destroyed Ayinichira dam and
cultivation above it.
6.The sea forced a new and deep opening into Chowghat back-water and broke with
much strength n the Ennamackal dam(8 miles from river mouth)which however sustained
no injury. But the crops in the bed of the lake were injured by the floods from inland.
Earthquakes are not very frequent and when they occur are not very destructive.
31 st December 1881 7.10 AM. from east to west a tremulous motion at Calicut for a few
Seconds
A similar one in midnight the previous night had a peculiar rumbling noise and of rushing
waters but very faint. This was felt from Malabar coast to African coast and as far north
as Kathmandu in Nepal and south at Andamans.
2 months later 28th Feb 1882.6.16 AM at Calicut as far north as Tellicherry and east to
Nilgiris .A local affair but with a muffled roar approaching,passing and roaring
away.Like a short train passing through a tunnel underneath. The direction was from south
to north.Furniture,windows and roof tiles shook for a second.
1882 October 14th 2 PM .Alathur Palghat Taluk a noise of underground train from east to
west .Tables and boxes rattled and it lasted a second.
The following were reported from Trivandrum:-
Feb 1823
Sep 10 .1841
Nov 20 .1845
March 17.1856
August 11.1856 .Five hrs 51 mts 25 sec AM
August 11.1856.Four hrs 25 mts 10 sec PM
Sept 1.1856.zero hr 15 mts 0 sec PM.
Kedvellam(stinking water):-After rains, sea and backwaters emit a foul smell. Water is
dark porter color or with deposits of lack mud on sand. The fish and aquatic life perish
and there is putrid odour.The cause of the effluvia in hot season is difficult to determine
but Dr Day quoting Bennett say that it arose from presence of innumerable Arum foetidum
as in Ceylon. It was seen in Tellichery where no mud banks exist in 1836.If this is present
people vouchsafe in monsoons, calm harbor of refuge for ships.(due to the calm nature).
Three places where the mud banks and mud bays are seen are Northern Kollam near
Quilandy,Narakkal in Cochin state, and Alleppey in Thiruvananthapuram.Narakkal and
Alleppey mud banks allow safe loading of ships in monsoons. In 1498,Vascoda Gama was
said to be protected by the northern mudbanks.In 1793 thinking that this is true Joint
commissioner of Malabar permitted company ship Morning star to lie there during south
west monsoon season. It was wrecked.
The mud is churned up from bottom and spreads on surface and making a calm
surface.H.Crawford recorded that a subterranean passage of streams communicating with
some of the rivers and backwaters become more active during and after rains, and carry of
the accumulated water and with it vast quantities of mud. The mud banks act as
anchorages to ships. When 700 yards east to Alleppey beach pipes were sunk at depth of
50 ft to 60 ft when the shaft ran down to 80 ft,mud came up just as the same that is seen
in the sea and a cone of mud appear above water with bubbles and throws out immense
mass of soapy and blue mud in the form of boulders with fresh water ,debris of vegetable
matter decayed, and in some instances fresh and green.Mr Crawford’s successor Mr. Rohde
confirmed these observations and notes mud volcanoes bursting up in the sea during
rainy season as if a barrel of oil suddenly started below surface. The mud bank thus
formed is floated away to south by littoral current ,and fresh mud banks made wherever
hydraulic pressure of inland backwater increase sufficiently to overcome subterranean
resistance offered by stratum of fluid mud which exists at the spot described by
Crawford. The mud bank at Alleppey increase and diminish as level of inland water rise
and fall, and this was most observable in rainy season of 1882.(same year as multiple
earthquakes were recorded).
The unctuous,sticky,soft foetid green mud under microscope had minute fragments of
quartz, foraminiferous shells(genus rotalia),and a few fragments of larger
shells,,diatomacoea(species upward of 20 genera),a few spicules of sponges and
corals, very minute, and some amorphous matter which was not destroyed even after
boiling in strong acids .It was tenacious and sticky resistant to pressure like a stiff piece
of jelly. Acting like an immense spring ,it yields to pressure of waves, the water thus
looses its force and become quiescent. The mud expanding is preparation for a fresh
encounter.62 species of 30 genera of cryptogamia and subgroups diatomiae were
recognized in it.The ked vellam(stinking water)and mudbays/mudbanks need not be
connected. Fish can live in mud banks but not in kedvellam.Ked vellam gets its deadly
character to generation from subjacent strata by volcanic heat of poisonous matter or
vapour ,which is absorbed by water,. The mud banks also derive their mud oil from similar
volcanic sources are also replenished by subterranean passages, full of liquid
mud, communicating with sea, on one side and backwaters on the other.
The oil in the Warkilli strata is due to distillation of oil from the ligniferous deposits
,which may be due to moderate heat from a line of volcanic energy lying parallel to west
coast of India..
Fauna and flora :-
Rhodes Morgan (British Ornithologists union)classified it as
1.Littoral zone. sea level to 200 ft.Rainfall 70-133 inches
2.Zone of deciduous forests five miles from base of western ghats in SE portion of range
extending up to elevation of 1500 ft .rainfall 130 inches.
3.Tropical evergreen forest from 500-3500 ft .Rainfall 130-180 inches
4.Evergreen shoal forest from 3500-6000 ft.Rainfall 180-250 inches
5.Scrub shoal forest from 6000 ft upwards. Rainfall 250-300 inches
6.Open grass ,scrub,bamboo,mixed deciduous and evergreen forest(Wynad plateau)from
2000-2500 ft.Rainfall 60-90 inches.
7.Heavy deciduous forests. With teak zone .50 – 80 inches rain.
Logan traveled from Calicut to Mysore frontier and noted each of the fauna and flora .
He started from Elathur beach at foot of ghats near Kuttiadi and noted the following:-
Cocos nucifera
Corypha umbraculifera(giant talipot)
Borassus flabelliformes(palmyra)
Caryota urens(sago palms)
These are near the houses.
Areca catechu(arecanuts) at edges of paddy fields
Mangifera indica(mango tree)
Artocarpus(jackfruit)vateria indica(white dammer)
Poongamia glabra(poonga/ungu)
Ficus indica and religiosa(banyan and peepal)
Poinsiana with gaudy blossoms in house compounds
Lagerstromia reginoe(house compounds/in full bloom at base of ghats)
Cassia fistula(graceful Indian laburnum)
On low laterite hills Anacardium occidentale(cashewnuts)
Casuarinas equistrifolia on hills and there it support shrub by growth of
lantana,eugenias,(Eugenia bractea in Wynad of 30-40 ft height and 2 ft diameter is a
small tree whereas here it is a shrub)two species of Euphorbia(E nivulia, with 20 ft
height)santalum album(sandalwood)occasionally sown by birds from cultivated trees in
the neighbourhood.
Elathur:-
The boat was cut with a single log of Iynee(Artocarpus hirsuita) and a neat semicircular
awning of corypha leaves.Pole is of bamboo.
Banks of Agalapuzha with everlasting coconut fringes.
Jacks,mangoes,talipot and sago palms occasional silk-cotton(Bombax malabaricum)in
each house, groves of trees sacred to snakes (with images of cobra smeared with castor-
oil, red ocher).
The Frangipani(Plumeiria acuminate),hornbills(Hydroscissa coronata) eating golden
fruits of Nux-vomica(strychnos nux-vomica).
Thousands of little red crabs on banks.Cerebera odollum looking like mangoes but
poisonous. In marshes dense growth of Dillivaria(D,illicifolia)which is retreat for
muggers(Crocodilus palustris)lazily enjoying hot sunshine
.
Ottor families(Lutra nair)diving and chasing in play
Kingfishers of four species .Large stork-billed kingfisher(P .gurial),
kingfisher(Ceryle rudis),the brilliant H .smyrnensis,and her smaller cousin Alcedo
bengalensis.
Bee-eaters Merops swinhoii and viridis
Snowey egrets (Bubulcus coromandus)
Various types of fishes and insects which are their prey
Fish like Bombay ducks with long serrated beaks like bill of a snipe and an ancient fish-
like odour.
Payoli loak-A small fee for the tollkeeper.Through a canal reach from Agalapuzha to
Kuttiadi river.
Lates calcarifer (Nair fish)
Then the ghats rise with forest from head to foot.Boatman paid his fee, and on horseback
proceed. Thousand plumigated birds fly from branch to branch and chatter. Ubiquitous
coconut palms on either side. But many forest trees grow in between and luxuriant pepper
vines on each tree.
Lovely Erythrina indica with scarlet flowers specially for this purpose.
Logan see two elephants with abscess in jaws due to carrying logs .
In kuttiadi forest they see logs of ebony(Diaspyros ebenos)Irool(Xylia
dolabriformes)Mutti(Terminalia tomentosa)Poomaraudu(Terminalia paniculata)red
cedar(Acrocarpus fraxinifolius)and white ceder(Cedrela toona).A few yards from the
depot is a punam clearing with tender green of the blades of sprouting grain. The owners
are the Malayar examining his dead falls (the rabbits, porcupines ,small deer, and mouse-
deer called Memimna indica)for which he has kept traps.
Then a dense forest with stems of Cycas circinalis which give nuts. The fruits are as large
as the pigeons eggs ,some green and some golden yellow. The forest has grown denser.
The Schleicheras(S trijuga)are the most magnificent trees Logan has seen. With bunches
of fruits the size of a robins eggs and seed containing oil and even the branches give
oil. This tree resembles an oak .And near palghat the country is covered with them.
Lofty specimens of Hymenodiction excelsum with barks which is bitter. Bignonia and
Alstonia(A .scholaris)belonging to order sapotaceae.Other genera of this useful order
Bassia longifolia common in Palghat is not seen here.
Isonandra wightiania is a little higher up in forest. Below a wooden bridge spanning a
mountain torrent over a bed of gneiss is a pool of water with sapphire blue color and
Barilius bakeri(fish)dart at small flies. A noisy group of Macacus radiatus eats yellow
berries growing on a creeper –enveloped tree that overshadow the pool.
As the ghat is ascended an undergrowth of strobilanthus in flower. Bamboo arundinacea
has seeded and jungle fowls (Gallus sonneratii)are rejoicing. cocks and hens and a black
languor (Presbytis jubatus)with family .As the stream is crossed the gigantic size of trees
surprise Logan. A black dammer(Canarium strictm)with a mass of resin from a cut in its
bark,Isonandra wightiana ,which Logan strike with a shikar knife to see its milk oozing
out and flowing down. This hardens into a gutta-percha which is useful. A little tree
Baccaurea sapida trunk covered with racemes of pinkish red flowers .It has little angular
red fruits .In October when cardamoms ripen ,the size of this fruit will be big ,the size of
a duck and aril inside is sweet sub-acid and pleasant and refreshing tasting like a
mangosteen .Cardomoms(Elletaria cardomomum),and a Laportea crenulata (devils nettle)
overhead with poisonous hairs on leaves ,Mucuna pruriens(cowhage)the pods covered
with stinging hairs and a purple flower with a terrible smell.
Then a coffee estate.The paradise flycatcher(Tchitrea paradise)with its chestnut coloured
spouse which cares its children which are migratory birds.
The purple sunbird (Cynniris lotentia)with quivering wings beating quickly as it drinks
nectar from coffee blossoms. Down the rocky stream is the Malabar blue thrush
(Myiophonus horsfeldii)whistling away. When monsoon come he builds nest in a rocky
cleft near a torrent inaccessible to monkeys and snakes.
Squirrel(Scuirrus tristriatus)a smaller one(S .sublineatus)Malabar
squirrel(S.malabaricus)racing up a giant dammer (Vateria indica).On the tree trunk is a
neat hole chiseled by Pteromys petaurista as a home. He has a parachute wing with
which he sets sail gracefully down the valley.
A small species of squirrel(Sciuropterus fusco capillus)also live in such holes.
Then Logan notices the noble valuable trees and a multitude of them too .A splendid iron
wood tree (Mesua ferrrea),irruppu(Cynometra ramiflora)fine jack(Artocarpus
integrifolia)60 ft to the first branch and over 3 ft in diameter. He notices that it is not a
cultivated tree but a wild tree growth and never touched by man for profit .A splendid
poon spar(Calophyllum augustifolium)and hundreds of such magnificent trees .He calls
them as “Flora sylvatica “due to its beauty and magnificence.
Then they come to the clear clean mountain stream. From there they could see the sea ,the
white sails of fishing craft coming homeward laden with seer-fish and pomfret.From the
base of the hills to the sea is coconut palms.
Then they descend. See the Boehmeria (B.malabarica)that produce splendid fibre.The
string of bow of the Kurichiya is made of it. Logan describes the bravery of a kurichia
uncle who killed a tiger (which killed his nephew)with an arrow that crossed its heart and
bounded across the open country grass hill side to the next shoal.(This is in contrast to the
fancy tales of Jim Corbett who pictures the natives as cowards).The team stayed in Koroth
Bungalow and started early to the Balasur mountains.(The bungalow is at its
base).Crossing coffee and lantana they reach a primeval forest. Ground strewn with
large round prickly fruit (Cullinea excelsa)like green hedgehogs .The spines are 3 inch
long. They fall fast and a tribe of wanderoos(Innus silenus)feed on them .They are the
lion-tailed monkeys.Solanum robustum has leaves 3 ft long and 2 ft broad which is
velvety .They and the stems are armed with spines. The orange fruits are as big as
badminton ball and covered with thick coat of spines. When peeled the fruit look like a
hardboiled egg. They taste nicer than the Brazil cherry(Physalis peruviana).The solanum
of Peru is unarmed without spines. It is grown in botanical garden of Ootacamund.The
lovely Thumbergia has recemes of pendent golden flowers. Another species of it with
streaks of orange-maroon also seen. Usually they flower in cold season, but this one has
glowered out of season ,when Logan saw it.
The gigantic Ficus parasitica with a thousand aerial roots desending to ground thickly
was seen and it was so thick that it was difficult to pass through them. The anastomoses of
main stem and branches had made arches. The smaller roots produce a silky soft fiber
,very strong and Kurichia use them for bows and are known as Colinar.They prefer the
manali naar(Bohemeria)for it .
It was curious that there was little leaf mould on ground .Termites and rare splendid
earth-snakes have done it.The elephant beetle which rolls the elephant dung to pits are in
plenty also in Mysore forests .Inside the dung we can see a yellow egg as big as the end
of our finger which will emerge as larva .It is food for the black sloth bear (Ursus
labiatus).
On the trunk of a dammer tree Logan see a black line of termites reaching to a nest 100 ft
overhead ,60 pounds in weight and as hard as iron. He says 20 species of termites are
there and in Burma is a giant termite half an inch in length .Manis pentadactyla(ant
eater)also was seen. The area is the 3rd zone of tropical evergreen forest. And there on
rocky gneiss a thousand rock-plantains(Musa ornate)seen and wild plantains (M
superba)in clumps in ravines lower down and have golden fruits.Kurichia munches them
and the common fig(Ficus glomerata)that swarm with a multitude of two-tailed
flies.Gamboge tree(Garcinia Morella)wild nutmeg(Myristica laurifolia)M
angustifolia,and a tree with pale green flowers arising directly from
trunk,polyalthia(P.coffeoides)with strong bark is described. Another of the same order
Anonceae with glabrous leaves is Goniothalmus(G .wightii)which is rare in north but
very common in Palghat in Chenat Nair forest.
The dense undergrowth of dwarf screw pine(Pandanus)had to be cut to go forward. And
then strobilanthus paniculatus which has different species and vary with
elevation.Hemileia vastatrix destroying coffee plantations was seen.Dichoceros
cavalus(large noisy hornbills)were having their breeding season and Logan describes
seeing them. Then Logan is shown a vast area of forest destroyed by Mappillas for coffee
plantations. After one hour ascend reach another shoal, entirely different from the one they
just crossed. The trees not so lofty, undergrowth denser, species of strobilanthus different
,birds abundant and bees and insects keep a continuous hum in blossoming trees
overhead. Then they enter the 4th zone or evergreen forest.
A dense growth of dwarf bamboo (Beesha Rheedii)barking deer(Cervulus aureus)a bees
nest(Apis mellifica)lycopodiums and balsams along a brook, on moss-grown rocks. A
funny frog(Hylorana )squatted amongst them and greets them with his music with a
monotonous running up the scale like”Tunc-tuk-tuk-tuk-tuk-tuk”
The kurichia comes with a mass of golden honey comb cut from the hole of a Eugenia
(with divine scent of camellia-like flowers of the oron wood Mesua ferrea)because the
honey mostly come from that flower. They have breakfast for half an hour and see a fussy
spur-foul mother(Pteroperdx spadiceus)with her children They see the signs of a sambar
(Rusa aristotelis)where it has rolled in mud and rubbed the back on rock and sharpened
horns against a Garcinia purpuria.The Kurichia who is the guide collects the fruits of the
tree which is used by people as substitute for tamarind in food.
Eugenia,simplochos and cinnamon are seen with their different species.Cinn.Zeylonica is
the common variety.Euria japonica is like tea shrub and 2 species of tetranthera on which
Atlas larva feeds,Biscoffia Javanica on which A.luna silkworm feeds.Evodia triphylla
with several butterflies(Ppilio paris)around,Hestia jasonia with lacelike wings .Logan
collects three species of beetles ,a handsome green elator,large rose beetle, one of the
cetonidae and a fine specimen of the horned beetle.(Odontolabis burmeisteri).The
kurichia find a 8 inch long scorpion of dark blue color .He tells them the story of a
snake he found here once with brilliant scarlet wattles like that of a cock on his
forehead. Logan assumes that it must be the mountain cobra(Ophiphagos elaps).The
kurichia has once killed an 18 ft long boa with an arrow .The greenish brown viper is
common here ,Logan says. Logan says he was bitten a 100 times by it!
After ½ hour they reach the dwarf shoal forest or 5th region and undergrowth is
denser. They had to cut every yard to make way up. Great stretches of boulders to be
scrambled over and common nettle(Giardinia peterophylla)stings .The dwarf eugenias
and ilex(T.weightiana),scrubby bamboo (Arundinaceae wightiana)only 6-8 ft high are
common .A harsh strobilanthus species difficult to struggle through is seen. Rare laughing
thrush fly from bush to bush(Trochalopcrum jerdoni)and the blue rock thrush
(Petrocyncla cyanea)sits looking at the travelers from boulders above. Other birds in
plenty are securing food and Logan see among these multitudes of species Zosterops
palpebrosus,Hypsipetus nigeriensis,Dendrophila frontalis ,common green
megalaima,swiftlets(Collocalia unicolor)which roost in caves of Brahmagiris and breed
here in seasons .Nilgiri kestrel (Cercheneis tinunculus)eats a mouse on a rock and flies
away with prey as the travelers approach.
Then they reach peak and look round. Away to east they see great pools of Kabbani ,to
right are the peaks of western ghats,and beyond the Nilgiri plateau,with black
storm clouds gathered and vivid streaks of lightening dart forth like tongues of flame
and boom of distant thunder echo from rocky cliffs around. Clouds gather on the left on
Brahmagiri,and Dindamal hills so they hurry to get down by another way, the Terioot face
of the mountain. Reaching the foot, they mount on horses and go to Koroth bungalow in
time for dinner. At midnight the storm bursts and torrential rains come and for an hour
thunder and lightening continuously echo the mountains around. At daybreak they start en
route to Mananthavady 10 miles away. There are a 1000 birds rejoicing the fresh cool
air. The orchid Dendrobium aurum fills air with lovely odour.They collect its golden
flowers and others from many trees. There is a great bed of red wild ginger .Trees are
covered with festoons of Hoya and handsome ferns and fine tree ferns(Alsophila glabra)
is seen. The forest is deciduous with several evergreen trees like Vateria indica,Evolia
triphylla,the shrubby Wendlandia notoniana and Logan collect specimens of Atlas moth
larvae(Attacus atlas).
The forest in that part is ruined by Koomree(Kumari)cultivation of fields of raggi for
years and there is only shrubby vegetation. With trees like Evodias,Lagerstromias,Wodina
wodier ,Bignonias,Careya arborea,and heavy growth of bracken. An old avenue with
vateria indica ,ficus bengalensis ,Artocarpus integrifolia are seeen on either side of road
and between patches of jungle were open grassy downs with cattle and buffaloes grazing
on them. They have wooden bells and the monotonous rattling is not pleasant but curious
for Logan and he is afraid of them .He passes several Mapilla homes on either side with
their small coffee gardens and jack trees and on them discoreas are grown for the
tuberous roots. At MananthawadyLantana is abundant and gives asylum to panthers(Felix
pardus)which prey on village dogs and calfs.At 9 they reach the forest office and the
experimental garden. In that Ceara rubber(Manihot glazovvii)mahogany(Chloryxylon
sweitenia)cocoa(Theobroma cocao)rain tree(Pithecolobium saman)sappan(caesalpinea
sappan)are grown.
The next destination was Imperial forest Reserve at Koodrakote.Logan notes that the
board is nailed on to a young Nauclea species tree with curious flowers like olive-green
badminton plants. A swamp of screw pine (pandanus odorattissimus)and willow(Salix
tetrasperma)is noted. He see a solitary tree with nests of cliff bee (Apis dorsata) .Passing
Oliot police station and reaching village of Sunnuthgoody he see a road to right ,leading
to Mysore.
He find a very valuable forest which belong to 7th zone first class deciduous trees and
teak.6th zone was open grass scrub and bamboo with mixed deciduous and evergreen
forest.Mutty called kurramarudu (T .tomentosa)in plenty and grand logs of it is noted by
him. He says 70-80 ft long straight trees like an arrow, which can fetch good remuneration
to the Govt if sold and considers it as a mine of wealth.(It is here that the entire
programme of seeing the forest is revealed as a survey for commercial generation of
wealth ).His own words:- “But we cant sell it now. …However when a railway affords
cheap carriage and saw mills are at work ,we may hope to make a fair profit out of it
yet”.(This mindset is still in our new Governments ,sad to say.)
The magnificent logs of Pterocarpus marsupium ,the next best timber to teak grew
abundantly .Logan observes the mastery of the Bet Kurumers in sawing, squaring and
marking the logs professionally. He notices the hieroglyphic like signs and says he has no
T-square ,tape,foot-rule,chisel or hammer ,nothing but his axe and yet makes a squared
log measuring with his eye and stamps a seal exactly in middle.(His sign shows the
number of the log, its length, mean quarter girth, total cubical content ,the year in which it
was felled, the site(wynad forest) and the sign that it has been sold.(page 51-52).Even the
initials of purchaser is marked. There is a hole in the corner for the drag-chain to pass
through.
Blackwood(Dalbergia latifolia)for coast market is shipped by purchasers at Tellicherry to
Bombay and Karachi markets .(This was the ancient route by which it reached Indus
valley ).
Close to Begur he see a flame of Poinciana regia in bloom. Logan see 70 logs of teak in a
depot all prepared by Kurumbars for the company to sell and make profit .He see mighty
rosewood(Dalbergia latefolia),wild dogs(cuon rutilans)sambur(rusa aristoletis)spotted
deer(Axis maculates)pig(Sus indica).
Logan writes:-Just look at the magnificent trees here. And no wonder they are so fine ,for
the soil is a deep rich loam, nearly black, and composed entirely of the rich surface –soil
washed down from low hills around the monsoon rains. The rainfall is about 80 inches
here. There stands a magnificent teak surrounded by thousands of Mutty
trees(T.tomentosa)and venghai(Pterocarpus marsupium)and venteak(Lagerstroemia
microcarpa)rosewood(D.latifolia)and just off the road a monstrous fig(Ficus
mysorensis)that was blown down in the fearful monsoon gales of 1882.A famous tree it
was too, known amongst the kurumbas as the great “Goni Barray”.Its branches bore twice
a year a rich crop of wax and honey ,for over a hundred colonies of large bees (Apis
dorsata)have resorted for years to this mighty tree to rear their broods in fancied security
.
The handsome black bird which sings and is tamed by Mohammedans is the
Bheemaraj(Edolius paradiseus)and it has power of mimicry and mew like cat ,cry like
baby, cackle like poultry .It has two elongated tail feathers curled into shape of a racquet at
the end. A male Malabar trogon(Harpactus fasciatus)bronze-winged dove(chalcophaps
indica)flame birds(pericrocotus flameus)orioles(oriolus kundoo)blue bird(Irena
puella)woodpecker(Picus Hodgsoni)50-60 king crows (Dicrurus macrocercus)on a
willow tree ,bee-eaters(Merops viridis and swinhoii)etc.He takes a bath in Kabanipool
and catch some giant carps and mahseer .At sunset watches the imperial pigeons
(Carpophaga insignis)on an ebony(Diospyros embryopteris).A mugger(Crocodilus
palustris )is seen swimming. Seeing the wodagur women coming to fetch water with
shining brass pots poised gracefully on their heads the mugger disappears. A frog crack
from a slimy pool .the hoot of a eagle owl(Bubo nipalensis)echo from behind .
The gaur (Garoeus gaurus)once everywhere in Malabar has been destroyed by Logans
time and he mentions it.The cow-bison are now seen in Brahmagiri and Dindamul ranges
of hills ,in Chedlath and Beni forests and in ghat forests near Peria in Wynad only. Gaur is
seen in low country, slopes of western ghat ,in palghat Chenat Nair forests .Felix tigris is
rare in wynad and panther(F .pardus)is abundant in Mananthoddy and wild pig is
everywhere in the forests. South Indian wild goat(Hermitages hylocreus)was abundant once
from Naduvattom to Valliyar but have become almost extinct by hunting .He then quotes
a lame ibex from Madras journal of literature and science .This speaks of Malayattur
church at Northeast of Alwaye as a very filthy ,little neglected church which is occupied
by the converted herds of ibex .He saw 15 males of ibex there ,and compares them to the
monastic habits of males but is silenced by the fact that the other sex is hiding behind a
bush unseen. Dull as the animals seem they have all cleverness of the priests .(page 60).
The three species of squirrels in Malabar :-Red squirrel Sciurus malabarica, which are
two varieties one with yellow tip of tail ,other with entire black tail, flying squirrel
Pteromys petaurista.
( Here I would like to add a few words as postscript of what is said in Logan. In Indus
valley and Harappan artifacts the clay figurines of South India ---it is ubiquitous all over
north and south India --- is seen and in the south it has a special sacred nature due to the
help it gave to Rama during sethubandhana.Sometimes it is the natural geography and
fauna and flora which leads to mythology and history and therefore ,each and every
citizen of a land should know the land and its features. I have given the excerpts from
Logan here for the sake of its positive lessons.
Love nature as it is. Learn the surroundings and know how to survive even in an adversity
like a floods or a famine. For this children should be taken to see their own land by
teachers and parents and the elders should have enough information themselves. Tourism
will develop only if we love our own country, its nature ,and protect ecology .If the beauty
of the ecological balance is not preserved, and if the people of the land become hungry of
money alone, no tourists will come to such a place .Therefore, at least for your own
survival, discard the nature of exploitation and live in balance with nature ,loving it for
what it is .)
Educational status 1881 census :(Educational department British Govt)
Taluks Under instruction Instructed Illiterate/not stated Total
Chirakkal 9486 17772 245411 272669
Kottayam 5567 12764 147444 165775
Kurumbranaad 7944 20206 232874 261024
Wynad 1370 3853 82868 88091
Calicut 6384 18721 180857 205962
Ernad 5114 14823 276206 296143
Walluvanad 7117 19149 281836 308102
Palghat 11018 25703 305733 342454
Ponnani 12769 27762 352123 392654
Cochin 1799 4046 15515 21360
Islands 246 2377 8178 10801
Total 68814 167176 2129045 2365035
The indigenous school system:- Freely attended by girls.( Note this point. There was no
discrimination for girls in PreBritish,British periods in native schools )
Alphabets,sloka by heart, and singing,amaram,names of all things in heaven and earth and
their identification including Gods,men,animals,birds,and rocks and stones and trees
(which is morphological classification )grammer,Ramayanam,Bhagavatham,Vyakarana
and other sasthra after that. Reciting and singing is a very important part of indigenous
system. For indigenous Brahmins there are three Sanskrit colleges two of which in
Thirunavay in Ponnani Taluk and Pulayi in Kurumbranad Taluk are in Malabar and
Thrissivaperur is in Cochin State. Each presided by a vadhyaan.
Vedic scholars in Nambuthiri families:-
Rik vedists 532 families
Yajur vedists 407 families
Sama vedins 7 families
Families Nambudiri Excluded from reading veda 71 families
Vedic namboothiri settlements
Taluk No:of families Rk Yajur Saama Excluded/uncertain
1 Chirakkal 79 3 76
2.Kottayam 30 4 26
3.Kurumbranad 70 51 19
4.wynad
5.Calicut 152 8 144
6 Ernad 120 10 85 25
7 Walluvanad 277 192 40 2 43
8.Palghat
9.Ponnani 289 264 17 5 3
10 .Cochin
Total 1017 532 407 7 71
The study of different sciences seems to have descended in particular families and
astronomy is particularly given much attention and the knowledge is fairly exact ,Logan
notes. They have a monopoly over learning and it is their knowledge which secured
them such a commanding influence according to Logan.(Please do note this statement of
Logan before saying that before Europeans came the natives knew nothing at all. They
didn’t know English ,one can say .But they knew quite a few things including
educational psychology,sciences,logic etc one has to understand.)
Castes according to Logan:-
He quotes some observations in Madras census 1871 report of Surgeon general Cornish
which is very important for us to understand .The great division of labor into
professional,personal,commercial,agricultural,industrial and non-productive services has
been noted. And rightly observes that the people of India originated from a common
parent stem and due to division of labour,and regional languages were divided into
several tribes and castes. If it were necessary to sum up the law of the country as it stood
before the Mohammedan invasion(1766AD)and British occupation(1792 AD)that word
would undoubtedly be the word custom(not caste),Logan says. In Malayalam it would be
Maryada.margam,aachaaram all signifying established custom .There is no indigenous
word either in Malayalam or in any other Dravidian languages to denote caste.Jathi ,in
Sanskrit is from janma or birth and that law which is natural custom to each birth .(For
example manushyajaathi,mrigajaathi,pakshijaathi etc ).The Tamil and Malayalam word
for it is Peru, as in nir-atti-peru(right from water deed)and is equivalent to janmam.It does
not define caste .Kaaraalar,kaaranmai is a trust and a co-operative duty ,which is
entrusted to certain citizens according to a deed ,and they are supposed to fulfill that duty
in a body politic. The nayars were the protectors of the country ,crystallized readily into
this duty with several branches of them. Their function of supervision(kaanam)remained
unimpaired down to the time of British occupation. Logan observes that due to the
ignorance of the British courts of justice ,the term has quite lost its proper
signification.(pp 111 vol 1)The nayars were also the vellalars (irrigators).They had to
respect the kon,or perumal,and was a protector of the interests of guilds of the nation and
all such rights were given to jews,Christians and later to Islamic people with sanction to
make their own palli (educational and religious center for such guilds ).The system of
sharing has survived in agricultural industry alone at present. Logan notes that it extends
to all classes of community ,no matter how humble they are. Logan feels that question of
caste and occupation has to be addressed together. He says:-It is unfortunate that such an
essentially European classification of occupation has been adopted in the census returns
,for it is only confusing .What ought to have been done was to have adopted the four
great divisions into which the Hindus themselves say they were originally divided:
1.The sacrificers ,men of learning
2.The protectors and governing classes
3.the traders and agriculturists
4 the service classes. To this a fifth is added
5.mechanics and handicrafts men.
6.Those who does not fall into such groups should have been grouped as a miscellaneous
group.
Logan attempted such a classification (see page 114 -115 vol 1)as follows:-
Division 1.The sacrificers (God-compellers)and learned .
Brahmins .Malayali and foreign 47683
Division 2 protectors and governing classes
Maravan (watchers/temple sweeper/musicianTamil 136
Mutratcha (watchers)Tamil 6
Nairs(militia) 321674
Rajputhra 362
Total 322178
Division 3
A.Traders
Balija (telugu) 1466
Komati (tamil) 1096
Shetty(tamil) 20945
Vaniyan and gandlu 42781
Vanniyan(tamil) 1259
Total 67547
B.Agriculturalists.
Agamudayan (tamil) 184
Golla(Idayar)herdsmen 2889
Gouda(herdsmen) 1062
Kurumbar(shepherds, jungle men) 2062
Kuruba golla (herdsmen) 16
Padayachi(tamil) 1008
Reddi(telugu) 119
Chanan,idiga,thiyyan,ilavan(planters) 559,717
Telugalu (vadugar)North countrymen 7811
Vellalan(irrigators) 7525
Yadavulu(telugu) 24
Total 582417
Division 4 service classes
Palli(ploughmen)or pallichaan 40809
Parayan ( labourer/leather worker ) 93612
Ambattan(barber) 8347
Odder(east coast tank diggers) 1682
Upparavan (same) 1
Vannan (washerman) 37556
Total 182,007
Division 5 Mechanics and handicraftsmen
Devangulu(telugu) 10
Kaikalar(weavers) 20465
Kammalar(asari,moosari,karuvan,thattan,kollan) 51553
Kummara(kusava)potter 11770
Madiga (leather worker) 181614
Saleeya(weaver) 21589
Seniyan (Tamil weaver) 486
Total 287487
Division 6 Miscellaneous
Ambalakkaran(Tamil chief of the Kallars) 27
Valayan /besta(fishermen) 16024
Lingadhari 71
Kallan (Tamil .Chora/chola robber in hilly areas ) 47
Shembadavan(fishmonger) 167
Others 162175
Not stated 1441
Total 179952
Grand total 1,669,271
If this was adopted many of the present confusions would have been avoided regarding
the caste system which was created unnecessarily to divide the nation .Page 117 gives a
table of occupation of the census 1881 .It is interesting that the women participation in it
as house wife is only very minimal.(The number of Brahmins and Kshathriya are
minimal .Kottayam and Parappanad are called Porainaat adigal and Logan thinks that it is
because they are foreigners.Actually,Porai means hill ,and they are kings of the hills
(Betta raja or vedda kings )and the Parappanad family provides consorts to all other royal
families of kerala.Thalappalli was part of this but since one of the kakkad kaaranavars
murdered a perumal,according to the wish of the naattukoottam,he was downgraded from
his sooryakshthra/Brahmakshathra status to a Nambidi and after that they ceased to have
intermarriage with Travancore and perumpadappu ,their cousins.The downgrading was
due to the act of dishonest killing (Himsa) and not birth .
Occupation census 1881:-
Occupation Male Female Total
1.professional
Government
Defense
Learning, literature etc
Total
7206
2274
27657
37137
57
-
14588
14645
7263
2274
42245
51782
2 Domestic
Wives
Personal offices
Total
-
5793
5793
866
6001
6867
866
11794
12660
3.Commercial
Money,house,goods,dealings
Carrying goods
Total
16968
32299
49267
2304
2133
4437
19272
34432
53704
4.Agricultural
Occupancy of land and agriculture
Care of animals
Total
346868
13082
359950
228631
3948
232579
575499
17030
592529
5.industrial
Art &mechanics
Textile fabrics, dress
Food ,drinks
Animal substances
Vegetable substances
Mineral substances
Total
19673
30097
72632
705
27830
65708
216645
417
61973
52998
1599
14030
6742
137759
20090
92070
125630
2304
41860
72450
354404
6.indefinite & nonproductive
Labor(specified)
Rank and property(swastham)
No specified occupation
Total
GRAND TOTAL
29066
31
476385
505482
1174274
18081
30
776336
794474
1190761
47147
61
1252721
1299956
2365035
About Nair women Logan says:-Though the law sanctions freedom in relations ,conjugal
fidelity is very general. Nowhere is the marriage tie –albeit informal-more rigidly
observed or respected, nowhere is it more zealously guarded or its neglect more savagely
avenged. Nair women are as chaste and faithful as their neighbors ,just as they are as
modest as their neighbors ,although their national costume does not include some of the
details required by conventional notions of modesty
Land tenures in Malabar:-
The unit is family and not individual. The association of families form a body corporate
like a gramam among Brahmins, a thara among Nairs,the cheri among theeya,and other
foreigners.(It is interesting that Nalapat had the family name Nalapat Cherikkal as they
belonged to the sons and daughters of the perumal in a woman from the northern part of
the country. But we also find the term cheriikal as the people and land belonging to the
side or chery of the king in a particular part like venad,or kochin and also as a group of
people belonging to cheruma/paraya.Thus the term is not restricted to one group)These
guilds of families and groups of families had separate occupations or function to be
performed.The chief agricultural guild were called vellala or those who have ruling right
over water ,canals, rivers and oceans. The nair and theeya were the bulk of the
agricultural population.One had extra function of warrior class and protection and the
other too had the function in some regions as Chekavar.Nayers as keralolpathy says were
the eye, the hand and the order and the duty to preserve dharma was in them. So both
agriculture as well as defense were equally important for them Supervisors or kaanakkar
and kaanam rights were entrusted in them Kaanam is a word from Dravidian kaanuka or
to see. The root of which is eye or kan.they were the overseers and their kaanam rights or
kaanam fields were always in sight of their house or tharavaaad.This was a special right
of the nayar .Kaanam right is not a possession or mortgage but a right of supervision or a
special function for which a special allowance is given to the nayar.Logan quotes a deed
showing that kaanam is under the six hundred(arunoottuvar)and the king and
kaanakkaran is the ruling authority or the paad (like nambuthiripad,bhattathiripad etc)for
ancient land revenue assessment (paattam).(Naalappaatt or pad is a term in relation to
this.While Chulali ,had a more military function,Naalaapaat /nerpaat was given a more
agrarian and supervisory function of all the four sides of the kings territory and was
located at the southern part which is Nalapat cherikkal in Uliyannur grama extending
upto churnikara.) Chulali on the other hand was given charge of the Northern part of
kingdom.(With Purainaattadi/Wynad/Pazhassi area ).
What is the duty of kaanam?The kon and pathi had shares of produce as owners of the
land. The rights of this in 9th century was paattam and this term still survives as Logan
points out. The paattam is a word signifying the pad or authority’s vaaram (share).Logan
quotes the words :- “The anchuvannam and manigramam protect the citizens in every
coming generation ,that in the space within the four gates and on the spot where land for
sale is given in trust the palace having received the kings title ,anjuvannam and
manigramam gets the kings title “(Page 598)Thus the Christians and jews given this right
was associated with the 600 Nayar supervising authorities under the King as the Lord .All
the rights of the Nair was given to the jews and Christians too by the deed. They too
therefore get a pati or the share of the produce from the common fields. It is giving the
land in trust to the proper workers who belonging to a body politic will improve it and
give the produce share to king, enjoying a share themselves and the rest of share for the
society in various proportions as assigned by the law of the country. The nayars had to
supervise that no land falls to disuse and maximum production is achieved and the
product reaches safely to the site where it is sold or bartered by the king etc.In short they
were agriculturers,protectors of treasury and granary and defense force and sons and
citizens of the king and such rights being given to foreigners means they had been trusted
by the king as well as by the nayars .Otherwise it would never have been allowed .The
nayars had to collect the king share or the public land revenue and give it back to the king
and at the same time see to it that the farmers are not put into difficulty in famine or other
natural calamities etc .These functions made them the major administrative and trading
and agrarian guilds with three functions (kshathriya,Vaisya mainly)at hand.Thus,it is seen
that this system of Malabar was prevalent in olden times in entire India and before advent
of Tipusultan there never had been public land revenue in Malabar (Page 599)By 9th
century when perumal rule was dissolved, there never was a superior emperor in Malabar
and the local kings were the Lords to whom the nayars and their corporate capacities of
powers had to rest.
The hereditary nature of a janmam deed is from its neerattipper which Logan thinks is
from peruka or to deliver a baby. But in Dravidian language it means to get or achieve .It
need not always be a child’s birth. It just means origin of something, including a deed .The
deed is made with water showing the power of vellaalar (the one who rules the waters
.The title of sathavahana were samudradhipathi).In 25 deeds from 5th century AD to 13th
century AD Logan see the word neerattiperu for giving a janmam deed. It was done in
Bhagavatham times with Mahabali giving land to Vaamaana and is a very ancient
practice. Logan points out that ,if this custom is that of Vedic Brahmin nambuthiri and the
belief that he came only in 8th century to Malabar does not tally at all. The share went to
all the 600 people and their families and to the king means the co-operative farming on
large lands was being done and it needed lot of knowledge and supervision and
experience and support from all and this was the function done by the guilds .In Malabar
the perumal rule abruptly ended by AD 825.Kochin state ruled by the last perumals heirs
after that continued to get the muppara (3 para per 10 para of produce on wet lands)and
ettukkonnu(one in eight produce in garden land)and this was the original share of the kon
or perumal .This was the only public land revenue that existed in entire India or at least in
the Kerala /South India .In 1766 AD when Mohammadan invasion occurred Logan points
out none of the malayali chieftains were levying regular land revenue .These janmis had a
share of the produce as revenue and it was more or less like a barter between the king and
the people. The janmis transfer had become an ordinary ryot in Travancore on purchasing
the janmam rights of cochin and other rajas .They were strong in their domains than the
Malabar chieftains who had lost strength after the last Perumal rule. In Malabar the janma
was bought and sold even before the Mysorean invasion and the wordings are significant
and Logan says the British missed the significance of wording .The rights of the soil is
given in detail and relinquishes all rights of the seller on it. But these are not mere
physical objects but the authority on the desam,the battle wager, the rank ,and customs
,heaven and earth above it,etc etc ,and the temple ,and a seat of honor in the temple
feasts, management of temple affairs, the temple wetland management ,and labourers,The
tharawad wetlands,gardens,workers,house sites etc .the desam,temple and thara authority
also are conferred .This is not the idea of the western mind at all as Logan points out. The
authority was associated with the duties to be performed to the society as well in the
deeds .Not on soil and produce alone but on protection of the land and its people and in
living co-operatively as a family sharing every thing with them. The sthaanam maanam is
associated with land deed. Logan writes:-European looks at soil and nothing but the soil
,Malayali looks at the people located on the soil .This trust and share is part of the entire
Hindu system and its outcome ,He writes. The essential difference of a Roman dominus
and a Malayali janmi was not perceived by the British ,Logan says. They converted by
civil courts the janmi into a dominus first and the reason for the deplorable condition of
the workers was this .(pp 604)
Another observation of importance is that the Nayar protector guild collected the revenue
for landlord as accountants(kanakkar) as share of produce ,and gave it to
janmi.Sometimes in times of need the Janmi/king/landlord borrow from the guild (in
times of war, famine ,etc )and it is deducted from paattam(padu/varam/share).The interest
or pallisa was at customary rates and balance of produce alone went to janmi.Thus people
as guild had a role in revenue and its payment of share through the guilds .If the
borrowing is too great it will wipe out janmi’s share of produce.(This is how the share of
kings reduced during British rule ).In that case the kaaanakkaran’s interest becomes an
otti .Even after the janmi loss the share of produce he has rights over people, living on his
land, and it was customary to value the remaining right at one half of what was already
advanced to purchase the otti.
The deeds by which transactions were effected (pp 604-608)
1.ottikkum purame ulla kaaanam.Jnami borrow 10% more on sum received for otti right
2.Nirmuthal.Another 10% on money already advanced for otti and ottikkum meleyulla
kaanam.He pledges the right of nir (water)to his creditor
3.janmapanayam.pledge of janmam right. Another further advance made on sums
borrowed and there is one step beyond this and that is conveyance outright of janmam
right.
The janmi first mortgage full value of his own share of produce. But what he pledges is
not the soil, but only his share of the produce ,and after that his other incomes and
emoluments attached to status of janmi .Logan says civil courts set up by British thinking
that the pledge is the soil as in the case of Dominus,completely upset the system of
customary sharing of the produce. What I want to stress is that we are continuing that
process and making life of agriculturist difficult thinking that we are doing the right
thing.
The periodical renewal duties and fees were a source of income for janmi/king. The
succession duties of Purushantharam were like this. This system of succession also was
changed by British civil courts and annexation of kingdoms followed indiscriminately.
There was a system of kulikkanam which Logan calls admirable. Any agricultural
labourer could cultivate the land that was already reclaimed and also constantly reclaim
fresh wastelands for cultivation to increase production. The customary sharing of such
Kulikkanam reclaimed plots was at the end of 12 years from the time the land was taken
up.Upto that time the labourer/cultivator enjoy the full produce. All that he has to pay was
a trifling fee of 2 fanam(panam) about 9 annas for entry into the soil. This was there for
kings also .(not only for laborers).
The longer the janmi and cultivator/saamantha lived ,the succession rate also was only at
very long intervals. And the rate of succession was only 13 %.Logan says (page 607)This
system which is a necessary result of Hindu social organization was evidently conceived
in much wisdom for protecting the interests of the cultivating castes. And he describes
how here again the European view of property laws upset the custom .The system that a
tenant making improvements in soil, holdings had special rights whether a cultivator or a
king is to be noted. A cultivator or king could not be ousted without a decree of thara
/assembly and the people’s guild was controlling this dharma. Thus kaanam and
kulikkanam tenants were practically permanent tenants though the common right of the
land was in the janmi .It was not personal property of janmi ,in short .Thus it was a co-
operative farming system with special laws to protect all and the economy of the nation
as well.
On 5th Feb 1881 Mr. W.Logan was appointed as special commissioner to inquire into land
tenure and rights in Malabar and he visited all Taluks except Wynad and on 18th June
1882 submitted a report. The abstract is given as follows:-
When Mysorean attack of Hyder and Tipu happened there was first disturbance of
customary laws.Tipu assessed with an ordinary Indian land revenue settlement .They
took paaattam (share of the padu or king)as paattam which encroached share of
kanakarar and janmi.But he kept the customary share of cultivator intact. He took as king
or landlord 10 % of pattam on wetlands of Cheranad and 100 % on garden land of entire
south Malabar. They did this to weaken the royalty and their army ,the Nairs.(Till then all
conquerors took whatever is customary for the landlords only).The 10% of revenue at
Cheranad was commuted to Rs 250 per 1000 Macleod seers .In other areas 50% paatam
of wetlands (Kadathanad) commuted to Rs 40 per 1000 Macleod seers. In reality this 10 %
assessment on Cheranad was severe and heavier and when taken in money ,than the 50 %
taken from Kadathanad .The money rates imposed by Mysore sultan and later by British
,caused the following (pp 609-610):-
1.Wet lands 86 % of the paattam
2.Coconut gardens 67 % of paattam
Areca nut gardens 53 %
Jack tree 69%
Total 189
Average for garden 63 %
3.Modan lands about 32 % of gross produce
Punam 42%
Ellu not available
(Special commissioner Graeme found it as wetlands 90 % and garden lands 62 %)
The land revenue was made by Tipu and the lower ranks of the kanikkar or cultivating
farmers who were the only people there since all janmis and Nayar chiefs had fled from
Malabar when they attacked.)
Mr. Farmer described the ancient system as:-From the quantity of seed the produce was
calculated according to the quality of the soil. Of this produce 1/3rd is allowed for the
farmer for his maintenance ,profit.1/3rd for expenses of the Tiyars ,cherumars or
cultivators attached to soil, only 1/3rd went to the janmi.
Produce is net produce and all parties were getting equal share of the produce. In Mr.
Jonathan Duncan’s interview with Mappillas they told him” Since Hyders time the right
of jenmkaars is taken or absorbed by Government. And the Mappilla kanakkarar were
paying nothing to the janmis except what they gave them out of charity.(see page
611).Nothing had been reserved for the janmis in making the Mysorean land revenue
settlement and denied that janmis had right or entitlement to anything.
Logan thinks this is the beginning of the serious misunderstanding of the janmi’s true
position in regard to the land. And this has produced all hardships to people /classes
beneath them. Logan says when all kings/janmis fled with their Nairs to Travancore the
Mappillas got absolute ownership of the land /soil like the European ideas. They advanced
small sums of money and to obtain deeds assigning to them large kaanam rights. Logan
says if janmam meant dominion and if kaanam meant a mere lease for 12 yrs ,they would
not have made such shrewd bargains. The kaanakkarn was the real owner or janmi and the
janmi/landlord/king was namesake and they knew that. But the previous kaanakkarar were
part of a guild, part of a dharmic assembly of protection of the laws of land while these
were not .Thus the system crumbled. The joint commissioners of North Malabar and
South Malabar wrote about the behavior of the already weakened kings and landlords as
avidity to amass wealth ,acted as scourges and plunderers than as protectors of their
respective little states. From 1792-to 1802 the state was in a series of disturbance
,rebellions ,robberies and Mapillas had a conspicuous part in them.(Pazhassi Raja rose to
power at this time. So the reason is obvious ))
In 1803 Major Macleod became the first collector of Malabar He entrusted Mr. Richards
the first judge of Malabar to solve problems. He called all principal janmis of south
Malabar to fix a Govt share for produce. Logan tells us the mistakes of Macleod (pp 535)
including a statement of Mr. Rickards that if the principles of his land revenue is applied
indiscriminately to seed lands in Malabar ,I am confident that agriculture would no longer
be worth pursuing.
His estimate was farmer has to give per coconut tree 48 nuts to Govt,and per arecanut
tree 200 nuts .Graeme made it per coconut tree 24 ½ nuts and per arecanut tree 150 ¾
nuts .In 1802 Oct 11th Edachena Kungan kills a Govt peon who wanted revenue from a
kurichiya and he and Thalkkal Chandu become rebels in the eyes of British Govt (under
PazhassiRaja.)
The net produce was ascertained in the customary method. Then divided as:
Wet lands Garden lands
1/3rd to cultivator 1/3rd cultivator
2/5th to Govt 1/3rd Govt
4/15th to janmi 1/3rd janmi
Miscellaneous lands –Modan,punam,ellu was divided as 3/5th gross produce to
cultivator,1/5th to Govt and 1/5th to janmi.
Even Richards did not realize what net produce really meant according to Logan. Graeme
reported the customary shares of the produce deducted at the time of
harvesting,threshing,and for the carpenter, blacksmith etc all will account for 20 % of
gross produce and after reducing this from gross produce only should be divided as
shown above. This was not known to the Richards commission. The scheme also failed to
provide share for kaanakkaran and they were not consulted at all. He used to get the same
share of 1/3rd but now he was a mere mortgagee ,an investor of his money and he had to
look after his own interests and investments and had no role in the guild or in the dharma
protection etc.(Thus ,when a king call them for war purposes etc they started to go for the
one who gives more benefits.Dharma,trust,honesty,values deteriorated and people as well
as kings changed loyalty and became opportunistic. )The janmi /landlord/petty kings
became fully recognized as the Lord of the soil after the European fashion(Logan pp
614)Kanakkars became least interested in Govt affairs and became interested only in their
own affairs. In 1831-32 prices rose to 15%.Next year another rise of 12%.In 1834-35
price of garden produce increased.1856-57 grain price recovered. from 1852-53 to 56-57
the marked price rise occurred.(The year of the mutiny).The first Mappilla rebellion was
reported in 1852 by special commissioner Strange (pp 615).Till 14th September 1857
thirty-eight of such were reported. This had something to do with the price rise and market
value of grains and garden produce rather than with any protection of laborers rights .
From a brief sketch of Logan’s report on land tenure we have
1.The original Malayali (and hence Indian)system of land tenure as a customary sharing
of the produce ,each customary sharer being permitted the free transfer of his interest in
the land
2.Under British rule one of these customary sharers had been exalted into the position of
a European proprietor holding the plenum dominium as the Romans called it.
3.The other customary co-sharers were pushed to the wall, and do not now receive their
customary shares ,and their right of free transfer of their interests has been virtually
expropriated.
4.The insecurity of the ryots thus occasioned has resulted in fanatical outrages by
Mappilla and in a great increase in crime.
Ponnani Taluk during British Rule (as per Logans Malabar Manual vol 2 .Appendix XX1)
The southernmost Taluk of Malabar ,formerly comprised of Vettathu Naad,Kudanad,and
Chaavakkad which were amalgamated into one in 1861.Boundaries :-In North the Ernad
Taluk,East Walluvanad,and Native state of Cochin. West Arabian sea. The district was not
surveyed when the manual was prepared and exact area not known Approximate area
according to 1881 census was 258154 acres or 404 sq miles. North south length of the
Taluk along the coast is 64 miles and width range from 3 to 20 miles in different parts. In
comparison to neighboring Ernad and walluvanad,it is flat along the coast while inland
low hills with scrub jungles,grass,and flat rice fields interspersed with groves of coconut
,arecanut ,jack and other trees surrounding dwelling places exist. Coastal soil is sandy and
the open seaboard is fringed with groves of coconuts. There is no granite in shores but in
interior formations of gneiss traversed by granite veins prevails which is seen in adjoining
two Taluks mentioned and they were One .
Inland water communications:-A series of lagoons and backwaters lying in zigzag
fashion along coast with a few canals which are manmade affords easy inland water
communication. It extend from Tirur southwards to Ponnani,Chowghat,Cochin and then
to Cochin and Travancore states. The total length of this inland water navigation from
Tirur to Cochin is 93 miles (of which 77 lie in Ponani Taluk).
Tirur –Ponnani section is 16 Miles.Ponnani to Chowghat section is 17 miles.Chowghat to
Cochin section is 60 miles. Common country dug-out boats are used for cargo and
passengers. They are manned by two people and can carry from 5 -20 people. Maximum
charge per mile is only 2 Annas and average speed is 2 ½ miles/hour. Transit is both by
day and night.(This is important).The occasional cabin boat has average speed of 5
miles/hr and charge 3-5 Anna more depending on size of boat. Cabin boats cannot travel in
dry seasons in certain parts. In addition to chain of back waters the Taluk has the Ponnani
river and a few minor streams. Timber from Anamalai and Mannarghat forests is floated
down the river in rainy seasons to local timber merchants depots and to Cochin
Government.
Logan mentions two large and shallow lakes in the Taluk.One is “Viyyathil lake” situated
about 3 miles east of Ponnani,and the other usually known as the Trichur lake is about the
same distance east of Chettuvai,and 8 miles from Chowghat.They are respectively
connected with backwaters communicating with the sea at Veliankod and
Chettuvai.Protected by strong artificial dams from tidal influences the beds of both the
lakes are to a considerable extent cultivated with paddy after the monsoons. The Viyyathil
lake lies entirely in Ponnani Taluk ,while the greater portion of the Trichur lake belongs
to Cochin state. The average extent of such cultivation and the amount of revenue derived
in the former(Viyyathil)are acres 7920 and Rs 10865.From the other, from part belonging
to this Taluk acres 2292 and Rs 2960.
(Note that Viyyathil lake is now misnamed as Biyyam by a mispronunciation of the V
for B .How this occurred is immaterial here. But the fact is that Viyyathil in Tamil has a
meaning which is very important for history. It means the Vaiyyakam or Bhoomi and the
lake of the bhoomi (Vaiyyakam)and its proximity to Bhaaratahpuzha,the only river in
Bhaarathadesa with that name is often overlooked. The other lake is the Enamaakkal lake
).
Climate along coast is temperate throughout year ,and in interior adjoining parts of Ernad
and Walluvanad,it is hot in months of April and May (as in other parts of Tamil
Nadu).Metereology shows rainfall as follows from 1878-85 for eight years ,in inches.
Yr Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Tot
1878 10 10 39 23 32 18 9 5 1 147
1879 2 2 25 17 21 14 6 9 9 5 110
1880 1 9 6 22 26 5 3 5 6 83
1881 3 11 10 15 5 4 10 66
1882 1 15 30 32 9 9 12 8 119
1883 3 2 18 24 25 16 4 9 10 1 112
1884 3 26 20 16 12 8 8 93
1885 3 1 5 37 29 15 4 15 4 3 115
Total 0 0 9 25 85 206 186 212 61 73 6 0 10 840
Average 105
The health of people is good .Water supply also is good especially towards interior parts
but is unsatisfactory in towns of Tanur and Ponnani.Sanitation of towns is looked after by
one sanitary inspector, one maistry,13 sweepers and one scavenger (Thotti)by local funds.
Population:-This Taluk ranks first in population. Total(including floating
population)according to 1881 census :-392654
Males 194150
Females 198504
Hindu 231402 (59%)
Mohammedans 146868(37 %)
Christians 14363(4%)
Other classes 21.
% increase compared with 1871 census:-
4.77 % in Males and 4.78% in Females .
Total increase 4.78%
Average density of population to square mile 972 and in this matter the Taluk ranked
second in the District ,the first being Cochin. Proportion of males to females was in the
ratio of 496.5 to 503.5 in every 1000.
Houses 78148 in number.
70625 occupied. Remaining 7523 unoccupied. Average number of persons per house is 5-
6.
Generally the people are poor. A few rich and a few medium .The occupation according to
1881 census:-
Professional 5750
Domestic 1306
Commercial 8696
Agricultural 88509
Industrial 65652
Indefinite 222741
Total 392654
Imperial license tax collected in 1885-86
Trade dealing, industry No:of persons charged Amount of assessment
Money lending 103 1520
Cloth bazaars 6 90
In paddy 5 90
In coconuts 5 50
In coconut oil 5 50
In rice 2 20
In fish 2 20
In salt 2 20
In tobacco 2 20
In timber 2 20
Boat rent 1 10
Miscellaneous 3 30
Total 138 1940
For administration Taluk was split into 73 Amsams.The revenue work was by an
Adhikari having civil and criminal jurisdiction. The civil power only for suits not
exceeding Rs 20 and criminal to petty cases of assault and theft in respective
amsams.Tahsildar had general revenue charge of the entire Taluk had two Assts
(Deputy Tahsildar)at Vettath Puthiyanghadi and Kuttingal,and Tahsildar’s office was at
Ponnani.The Assts were given charge of 21 and 28 amsams respectively. They exercise
judicial powers in these amsams and Tahsildar on the remaining amsams.The Taluk
formed a separate revenue charge ,designated the southern division under a general duty
Deputy collector with magisterial powers at Ponnani as his HQ.
Agriculture:-Staple produce is coconuts and paddy which is largely cultivated. Extend of
Government and Inam lands n acres given below:-
Type Government Inam
Wet lands
Nanja 71137 3625
Wetlands
Punja 13782 21
Garden lands 57872 1881
Total 142791 5527
The total area of cultivation is 148318 or 232 square miles ,or a little more than 57 % of
total area of the Taluk (taking it as 404 sq miles).The extant under garden land being 40
% of total area under cultivation.
Demand roll of assessment of lands:-
Amount of patta No:of holdings Assessment (Rs.Anna.Pai)
Under Rs 10 31076 82263.8.2
Rs 10-50 5240 107195.10.7
Rs 50-100 684 47105.5.0
Rs 100-250 316 45461.14.2
Rs 250-500 52 16553.14.1
Rs 500 and more 15 12236.2.11
Total 37383 3,10,826.6.11
Revenue for Taluk for 8 Fasli years:-
Yr Land revenue Local fund Village service fund Abkari Stamp Special fund License tax Land reve.miscell.
1288 306549.15.8 40382.5.6 19729.12.9 7540.8.0 59344.0.0 278.5.6 3577.0.0 7926.10.7
1289 308525.5.0 40100.14.3 19470.15.7 7177.4.0 91537.0.0 248.9.6 1250.0.0 2627.5.11
1290 308042.5.0 40016.3.11 40165.15.2 19445.4.2 88868.5.0 232.4.0 1940.0.0 2677.8.8
1291 309254.6.4 40165.15.2 19445.4.2 5513.14.8 86396.7.0 357.14.6 1730.0.0 4184.0.11
1292 309195.11.9 40219.6.8 19459.10.9 7492.0.0 81146.9.0. 300.12.8 1645.0.0 3386.0.2
1293 309240.5.7 40229.1.3 19352.2.10 8900.0.0 86431.3.0 324.13.6 1910.0.0 5204.0.4
1294 310543.3.7 40384.12.8 19466.5.1 8100.0.0 95909.6.0 399.30 1955.0.0 4802.10.7
1295 310816.6.11 40372.1.4 19472.4.11 10350.0.0 102142.0.0 339.4.6 1940.0.0 4532.10.7
From the above ,it is seen that a total of 4018326.21.114 is obtained from land alone(as
Paattam assessement,land revenue and miscellaneous land revenue) from the people of
Ponnani Taluk.(The other taxes and funds are not considered here but they also has
become an increased burden on already burdened .people).
Important towns:-
1Thanniyur (Thanni or Terminalia bellerica a medicinal tree for Thribhala which was
famous ,as shown by Avicenna’s medical text in 8th century AD in Arab countries and
was in great demand along with kadukka and nellikka).This is in Rayiramangalam
Amsam(of Narayanath Branthan ,son of Vararuchi 5th century AD).Keleswaram or
Keralaadheeswaram temple is in this amsa.This is one of the most ancient temples.In
Pariyapuram amsa,nearby is Thrikkayikkat temple of Shiva,Bhagavathy and
Ayyappan.Thrimurthy and Narasimha are painted on srikovil with two sculptures of
Dwarapalaka.This is a small port town.
2.Vettathu puthiyanghadi(the vettathu Rajavansa became extinct in 1793 when its last
Raja died).
Logan says the Jamath mosque there in Thalakkad amsam has brasscovered
Gopuram,and a granite slab on one of the steps of Northern gates bearing an
inscription.(not deciphered).Garudan koil at Vellamassery desam of this amsam and
Thrikkandiyur Shiva temple in nearby Trikandiyur amsam (founder ParasuRama) is
mentioned by Logan.
3.Paronna (Paravanna) former residence of Paravanur Panicker ,a desavali is a village
near sea, in Pachattri Amsam .
4.Kodakkal. due to presence of megalithic umbrella stones there. It is in Tripranghod
amsam 2 miles SE of Vettathu puthiyangadi with a
weaving(Chaaliya)establishment. Important temples like Thripranghot,Hanuman
kavu,Thirunavayi Vishnu ,and Chamravattath Ayyappa are there. The first two in
Thripranghot (Thiru Paravan kot)amsam. Thiru is sri.It is a shiva temple.Srikovil is105 ft
length X 75 ft breadth.The raised stone foundation of a pillar of the building consecrated
to Krishna shows a long inscription.(not deciphered).Sankhaabhishekam is the most dear
offering to Shiva.It gives prolonged life, and is connected to story of
Markandeya.Thirunaavaaya was founded by the nine yogins and is on North bank of
Ponnani river on the road from Vettathu puthiyangadi to Thrithaala.Mahamakha is
conducted there every 12 years.During the 28 days of the festival ,the throne of the king
is declared vacant and selected number of followers of king(Zamorin)and the rival
(original claimant) contestant of throne ,well trained fight .In 1743 the last one of its sort
happened. There is an othanmar madham for teaching theology there. A temple of
Brahma exists nearby which is very rare.(It is important to recognize that Logan though
he is not a Indian or a Hindu did not hesitate to record even the worship ,customs and the
local names and he didn’t think that these religious practices are myths to be discarded
,but as local subaltern(if you want to call it like that)history of a people .)
Near Chamravattom ferry on a small island on way from Tirur to Ponnani is the
Ayyappan Kavu.This is a God with special powers for giving rains.
5.Koottazhi(Kuttayi) is a junction and a bar as the name indicates. The backwaters along
coast of Thirur and Ponnani united here and communicated with sea formerly. hence the
name. In the Mangle Amsam near sea,4 miles to southwest of Thiruranghadi and with
a place called Nechikkat(for jungles of nechhi bushes ,it is a sacred place for
Mohammadans.
6.Ponnani (Ponnanayam)or gold coin .Gold coins circulated here and Arab and Persian
merchants came here before Europeans found sea route via Cape of Good Hope. The
Kudanaad District Magistrate court is here.
The mosque for study of Islamic theology was built there in AD 1510.(by Said –ud –din
Makkadum)and those who get a scholarly knowledge from here are called
Mussaliars.(Because of a Mausauleum/jaarrum there).The Makkadum alone gives that
title.Ponani is a seaport and timber,bamboo,coconuts,coir,local imports of salt and rice
are traded. A mile and half to the town is a sathram or Musafer khana.
½ a mile south to town is Thrikkavu in Pallapram amsam with a historical Gurgha
Bhagavathy temple. Founded by Parasurama,it is in Sukapuram grama ,one of the 64
gramas of Brahmins.Tipu plundered the temple and broke idol to pieces and used srikovil
for his halting place. The former owners took refuge in Travancore,and they came back
after restoration of country. They repaired and installed idol. In 1861 AD Zamorin repaired
the entire temple. Another Vishnu temple is in its vicinity ,the history of which is
interesting, says Logan’s manual. A chetty and a mussalman ,while in a sea storm
,promised to build temple and mosque here ,and they were saved and this temple was
built by the chettyand the jamath mosque by Muslim simultaneously.
7.Edappal ,5 miles east of Ponnani.In the neighboring Vattamkulam amsam is the
Sukapuram temple.Founder is Parasurama and deity is Shiva as
Dakshinamurthy.Registration as a person who performed yaga takes place once in 12 yrs
and it is one of the 64 original grama of Brahmins.Roof is covered with copper (of
srikovil).In Chekkod amsam another temple founded by ParasuRama I Panniyur.Varaha
is the deity. Once some of the ancestors of this Grama put a red hot vessel on head of the
deity and after that they are not allowed to do veda studies. Granite sculptures and
vattezhuthu inscriptions are seen and are not deciphered.
8.Thrithaala:-In Koottaanad amsam.Sathram and a weekly market is there and is on the
way to Palakad.4 miles south of the market is remnants of a old mud fort 200 yard length
and 176 yard width. Considered to be ancient.3 miles to North East of this ruins by side
of road to Shoranur from Padinjaranghadi is a small building called Kattilmaaadam or
kattlalimadam made of granite as a Hindu shrine. It is 10 ft square, same height,round
dome,formed of a single slab.Tradition says some supernatural agency built it. It was
intended as a second story pagoda about 4 miles off in Nethrimangalam amsam of
Walluvanad Taluk on the other side of the river and comparison of the existing shrine at
that pagoda favor this theory.
9Velliyamkallu near Thrithala is sacred for Melathur Akkithiripad performed several
yajna there. The ancestral rite vaavubali is done there.(New Moon in Thulam and
Karkitakam).
10.Chalisseri is on borders of Kappur and Kottachira amsams ,6 miles south of
Thrithala.The place is famous for trade of arecanuts and Christians are more in this area.
11.Veliankod.(In veliyankod amsam)4 miles south of Ponani.The sub registrar office of
Andathode in the adjoining Ayrur amsam is here.
12.Kottappadi.The gate of the fort.It is close to Punnathur Kotta of Punnathur Raja, a
feudatory chieftain of Zamorin.It is 3 miles north east to Koottungal .Inhabited by Syrian
Christians.(with a church).Famous for coconut oil and rearing of country pigs by
Christians. The animals are transported to Nilgiris and distant hills for trade. The chieftains
and the family still live there.
13.koottingal,the Chawakkad deputy Tahsildar HQ is in Palayur amsam by the side of
canal from Ponani to Cochin.,17 miles south from Ponani.Hindus predominate here. There
is a Syro-Roman catholic church at Palayur which is one of the 7 original churches of
Malabar .St Thomas, preached at the place. Near it ,there is a mound strewn with small
debris ,still known as the jews church, which was formerly occupied by a building of
some kind. There are some old carved stones ,including a part of a shivalinga and
vattezhuthu inscriptions ,spoils of a shiva temple in the vicinity. The modern church of
Palayur is under the Patriarch of Babylon.(Says Logans manual .This is very
important. Please note).
In Palayur and adjoining Chowghat amsam are two mosques one a1/4 mile east to
Kuttingal,and the other a mile west of it. There is a jaarram/mausoleum in Palayur (of
Hydros Kutty)of the commissioner appointed by Hyder Ali,to collect revenue.
14.Guruvayur:-Krishna temple formed by Guru and Vayu according to Puraana,.It is 2
miles North of Kuttungal .The most important temple in the district, and held in reverence
by the neighboring native states of Cochin and Travancore.Surrounded by huge laterite
walls and 2 Gopurams one in east and one in west. On western gate is an inscription
showing the gopuram was built in 922 ME by Panikkavittil Ittiraricha Menon
Karyakkar.On eastern gate in granite is a Sanskrit inscription :
-
Bhoopaalairvanajaadyai:kalimalahithairaarjithaan punyalokaan
Aarooda nishprayaasam nijasukrithajithaan divyasopaanamargam
Thumgam hrunethraramyam Gurupavanapuresaagratho gopuraagrya-
Vyajenaadhoksham jaaghroukrithamathirakaroschailaavaaraarnidheesa:
Srikovil and mandapam had brass sheet coverings .Temple flagstaff is 110 ft in height
having bell metal covering throughout ,save about 9 ft from top, which has gold
covering. The shrine wall has paintings of adventures of Vishnu as in Bhagavathapurana.
15.Chittattukara.In Brahmankulam amsam is inhabited by Syrian Christians with a
church of them there, and is 4 miles SE of Kuttungal.Coconut and coconut oils are traded.
16 Enamackal is another village inhabited by Syrian Christians in Venkidangu amsam 8
miles south east of kuttunkal It is 4 miles in SE of chittattukara (Chittattukara and
Brahmamkulam is now called Arthatt ). In Enamackel is an ancient Syrian church were
trade is coconut and coconut oil.
17.Valappad is also a seat of Syrian Christians. In Pallipuram amsam 17 miles Southwest
of Kuttunkal.A mile to the north of it is Thriprayar in Naattika amsam with a temple by
the side of inland water communication to Cochin and belong to Cochin state. The deity is
SriRama.On a granite slab on srikovil is an inscription difficult to decipher. Another
inscription in Malayalam by eastern entrance says:-
Pazhancherry padanaayarum Thrippurayaattadesathum Peringottudesathum
Ariyaponnidesathum Ooraalarum kaaraalarum nettanm kondavarum koodi
irimpaadathiri ….,,,
Which shows involvement of Pazhanchery Chief commander,Thriprayar desam,Peringot
desam and AryaPonnidesa rulers and officials (kaaraals/chieftains)and those who had
nettam(gain/labha /agricultural and trade guild chiefs).
18.edathuruthy.Another Syian Christian settlement 4 miles south of
Valappad.19.Mathilakam (because of the Thrikkanaamathilakam temple)founded
ParsuRama.Dutch destroyed it when they had a settlement in Chetwai.Traces of old
temple are still visible.Another Syrian Christian settlement seen in Paappinivattom
ansam.An ancient church also is there.9 miles south of edathuruthy is a mosque.
Festivals :-
No: Festival No:of days Malayalam
Month English month No:of people attending
1 Guruvayur Ekadasi 3 Vrischika Nov-Dec 5000
2 Guruvayur
Aaraatt 8 Kumbham Feb-March 3000
3 Triprayar
Araatt 8 Meenam Mar-April 2000
4 Thrithala sivarathri 1 Kumbham Feb-March 2500
5 Thrithaala
Aaratt 7 Dhanu Dec-Jan 2000
6 Tripranghot
Sivarathri 1 Kumbham Feb-March 4000
7 Thirunavaya aarratt 1 Medam Apr-May 4000
8 Thirunavaya
karkatavaavu 1 Karkataka Jul-Aug 5000
9 Thirunavaya thula vavu 1 Thulam Oct-Nov 5000
10 Garudan kavu mandalavela 5 sundays 1st Vrischika to 10th Dhanu Nov-Dec 1000 each day
11 Trikkandiyur Thula vavu 1 Thulam Oct-Nov 2000
12 Keraleswaram
Aaraatt 7 Vrischikam Nov-Dec 1000
List of charitable institutions in Ponnani Taluk
Amsam Institution Brahmins+
Traveler(vairagi) fed Private donation
Land/Money Land revenue grant-inam(Govt)
Vettam pallipram Chamravattom
sathram 492+41 714+- 124.11.1
Trikandiyur Vettakorumakan kavu sathra 36000+3600 3100+ 1399.14.2
Trikandiyur Triprankod samooha 10125 2000+ 235.2.1
Rayirimangalam Keraladeeswara sathra 61200+12240 3819+ 2704.13.4
Thalakkad Vellikulankara Ayyappankavu
sathra 5250+750 575+
Pariyapuram Ganapathiyankavu
sathara 1260 55+
Nullasseri Peringhattu oottusathra 4380+1095 60+
Guruvayur Guruvayur sathra 29200+1095
Guruvayur Thamarayur sathara 4380 +300
Vylathur Alakkal barhmarakshas
sathra 3650+720 3270+ 321.0.1
Naattika Triprayar sathra 27375+3650 …+3878
Vadanappalli Panayamkulangara sathram of Ullanat house 7300+3650 5502+-
Vaadanappalli Panayamkulangara sathram of
Manhalavil house 2920+365 1000+-
Kaypamangalam Mallikakkal sathram …+1825 ..-+228
Athavanaad Thirunava sathram 7200+720 …+660
Unmathur Kurumhikavu sathram …. …..
Unmathur Parakulangara sathram 900+60 300+….
Unmathur Kodalil sathram 900 120+1260
Kodanad Thrithaala sathram 9000+1080 ….
Paruthur Chembalanghat
Samooham
Kotikunni sathra 900 300+125 48.10.0
Irumbilium Perashannur sathram 900 ….
Ayirur Kattupinath vettkorumakan sathram 2555+2160 470+225
Iswaramangalam Thirumalasseri kottayil chavatti
sathram …..+1800 ….+1000
Thrikkandiyur Kumaramangalam subramanyakshethra sathra 9150+2440 …+140
Koktanad Asuramahaakaalan sathram 720 …….
A total of 225757 Brahmins and 37291 travellers and vairagins were fed in 25 sathrams
in 20 Amsams of Ponnani .For this total inam money from Govt was only Rs 4834.2.9.
Private donation in land was Rs 21585 and in money was Rs 7516.
The two comparatively less famous places in modern history ,but very famous in
prehistoric,historic sangham period and even during british period as seen above are
1.Alakkal Brahmarakshasan Sathram in Vylathur amsam and 2.the Kattupinath
vettekkorumakan sathram of Ayirur Amsam,both of which are in Punnayurkulam
,Vadakkekad panchayath.
Both under the Branch of Mooshakavansa Eliyankaattil Raja of Thalappalli.
Ayirur is the village of the five.:ay is also a shepherd or yaadava .(Kaattupinath-Behind
the forest or Kaattu is because Eliyankattu kovilakam was behind the Thirutheekkaat
parambu ,where the present Nalapat parambu is ,and it was the place of yagna of
them. The agrasaala was in the parambu of Ambaazhathayil ,seen as Agryath parambu.)
Sathram means a yajna or a sacrifice. And giving food as a yajna was the rule of Chera
kings.
Rayiramangalam Keraladheeswarakshethra tops list ,followed by Trikkandiyur .
Then comes Guruvayur and Thriprayar.
The Athavanad and kodanad Thrithala has next importance.But ,now only the Guruvayur
and Thriprayar have importance and all others have become almost forgotten by people
except a few historians.
Religious institutions which were given inam by Govt are given as Trikkavu temple in
Pallapram(Pallavapuram)amsam Thriprangod and Trikkandiyur temples under Vettathu
Raja and Zamorin after him ,and Guruvayur temple under Thalappalli Raja taken over by
Zamorin.
Nine weekly markets where salted fish ,vegetables and other items were sold are listed .:-
Day Place No:of people attended
Sunday Thrithala 2000
Monday Mathilakam 2000
Tuesday,Wednesday Andathode ,Veliankode 1000
Same Koottinkal 2500
same Valanchery near vadakkumpram 1500
Same Kalpakanchery 1500
Thursday Chalissery 1500
Saturday Valappad 1800
Same Kuttipuram 1500
Trigonometric station is in Kutnad,Kurunghot hill ,one mile south 0f Trithala in N Lat
10.47’32.64 and Long 76.08’36.50.It is in good condition.
Old tombs called Pandukulis in Ponnani Taluk
Nagalasseri 1
Ozhur 1
Klari 2
Vadakkumbram 18
Mullasseri 3
Annakara 1
(Pandukuli is a group of stones.)
Single stones seen in 13 amsams.
Kappur 1
Kumaranelloor 1
Tavanur 4
Alankode 1
Nagalasseri 10
Triprankode 1
Kanmanam 5
Melmuri 10
Olur 1
Klari 6
Ponmundam 1
Kaaattiparuthy 2
Parutur 1
62 Pantukuli and 44 single stones make 106 such stones.And megalithic kodakkal and
stone caves are seen in old Thalappalli Rajavansam areas like cheramangadu etc.
I have given in a nutshell the land tenure ,agicultural and environmental features and
administrative system in Malabar during Logan’s time and before .This will help us
understand our own culture and legacy.Since this is not written by any native
person,there is no need to say that it is a construct of Savarna or Avarna or any religious
communities or agenda of Hindutwa.If there is an agenda,the agenda was that of the
British Collector of the time,who wanted to assess the truthful state of affairs before
committing to any administrative reforms. There may a few people who say that he had
gone wrong in some of his observations.Even if so, that was due to his unfamiliarity of
situation, not due to purposeful twisting of historical facts. And such a commendable
historic record on Malabar and Kerala he produced ,for us to understand the true nature of
affairs at least partially makes Logan immortal in Kerala history.
Friday, May 28, 2010
Subscribe to:
Post Comments (Atom)
No comments:
Post a Comment