Friday, May 28, 2010

Agroeconomy as seen by Sir William Logan in Malabar

Dr Suvarna Nalapat's Blog.(Note that maps and diagrams are not included in this blog and the tables might not have come correctly in html file )

Malabar as seen by Sir William Logan

Sitting in the collector’s bungalow in East Hill Calicut ,on 7th January 1887 William

Logan wrote preface to his volume 1 of Malabar Manual. He wrote:-“In any descriptive

and historical account of the Malayali race,-the position, namely ,which was occupied for

centuries on centuries by the Nayar caste in the civil and military organizations of the

province –a position unique and so lasting that but for foreign intervention there seems no

reason why it should not have continued to endure for centuries on centuries to

come. Their function in the body politic have been tersely, described in their own

tradition as the eye ,the hand ,and the order ,and to the present day we find them spread

throughout the length and breadth of the land ,but no longer—I could almost say, alas—

preventing the rights (of all classes )from being curtailed or suffered to fall into

disuse……..To understand Malabar and the Malayali race aright, it is above all things

necessary to know this central fact –this distribution of authority –this “Parliament” as it

was called so long ago as 28th May 1746 by one who has settled in the country and

watched its working –this chastiser of the unwarrantable acts of Ministers of state –this

all powerful influence tending to the maintenance of customary observances –should be

firmly grasped by the mind”

He continues that Bentham’s dictum of “The greatest possible happiness of the

greatest possible number” ,,the attainment of this modern aim was advanced greatly by

this Malayali race whom he describes as “A Hindu community of the purest and most

characteristic type”. He says in the Indian peninsula this (Malabar)will be the best

province which will yield highest yielding and interesting information and to do justice to

that ,the store should be accumulated by a native of the soil itself. He notices that the

existing temples of Malayali dates back to 8th century or beyond and the earliest

Muhammadan tombstone at Panthlayini Kollam is of 14th century. More interesting is

that he records having seen Nair women perched on wheels in their paddy fields and

vigourously removing water collected in the fields .

The best available earliest records of the British India on Malabar is that of Logan and

we need not go to any other sources .The eyes of this foreign-born

collector who was particular about recording everything that he thought important has

done it for us..This chapter is the material of Logan from his two volumes .(apart from a

few comments I make to explain certain aspects)

The name of the place is Malayam (hill country)and the people who rule this area is

called the Malayali(Tamil =Malai aluvar or kings of hills).Mala is Dravidian and Ali also

is Dravidian.This when made into Malavaaram(the sides of the hill) and converted by a

change in V to B as the Muslims pronounce became Malabaara and Malabar. From time

of Cosmos Indicopleutus(AD 522-547) upto 11th to 12th century was called simple Male

by the navigators of Arab origin and seafaring people, who took spices and pepper .The

different pronunciations they used included

Malibar,Manibar,Mulibar,Munibar,Melibar(Marco

polo) Minibar,Milibar,Minubar,Melibaria,Malabria etc showing how a name can be

changed by different pronunciations and languages. The correct term is Malayam or

Malavara in the local language Malayalam and Tamil ( The Malaya mountains also

having the same name ) meaning the hilly sides ruled by kings of hills and

forests(Girivarga,Vanavasi kings or Kadavaa).The name is a geographic feature of the

region which is also called Keralam by the natives. The term bar means a coast in

Renaudts translation of The ancient accounts of China and India by two Mohammedan

travelers in the 9th century AD.

The boundaries of Malabar in Logans time is as follows:

1.Malabar proper.150 miles between northern latitude 10 .15’and 12.18’and Eastern

longitude 75.14’-76.56’

Boundaries .North South Canara districts,East Coorg,Mysore,Nilgris,Coimbatore,South

Native state of Cochin,west Arabian sea.

2.19 isolated territories scattered,15 of them in Native state of Cochin and four in

Travancore .

3.two detached bits land in Travancore Thangasseri and Anjengo

4.Four inhabited and 10 uninhabited islands of Laccadives ,Agatti,Kavaratti,Androth

,Kalpeni being inhabited.

5.Isolated Minicoy island (Menakayath was old name)and attached to it a small island

Viringilli used for quarantine purposes by the islanders.

Thus 4 degree latitude and longitude was covered by Malabar, 6002 sq mile area roughly

without adding the outlying islands. The Wynad Taluk lies above ghats and is a portion of

the Mysore plateau.On the southern slope of Nilgiri range lie two forest clad valleys –the

silent valley and the Attapady valley which belongs to Malabar.One of the most striking

features of the country is the Palaghat pass.A complete opening 20 miles across the great

backbone of the peninsula. How the break occurred is not known. It seems like a natural

agency broke it and the mountain look thrown back and heaped up ,as if some

overwhelming deluge had burst through sweeping them to left and right.(This description

seems very important to me since it denotes the deluge of the Matsyavathara when the

Dravida king SatyavrathaManu lived )Through the gap the southwest winds bring

pleasant moist air and showers to thirsty plains of Coimbatore.Through this the Carnatic

(again see the usage. The Tamil country beyond Palghat pass is called Carnatic in Logan’s

times).is linked to Kerala.Through this the produce of the eastern and western provinces

are exchanged. This is of great economic value to the region. Gentler slopes, rolling down

and gradually widening valleys closely cultivated and nearer the seaboards the low

laterite tablelands end abruptly in cliffs and give place to rice-plains and coconut-fringed

backwaters. The backwaters, the streams, and the numerous canals that connect them afford

cheap means of communication for the local people and used for trade and commerce and

for irrigation. Coastline show evidence of steady but slow encroachment of sea upon land

.The prevailing littoral current is from North to south. It is a branch of ocean current

which sweeps from Madagascar and East African coast and impinges on Malabar coast at

a point little north to the Northernmost point of the North Malabar where it branches into

two ,the main branch go down the coast and the minor go north. Sand thus travels from

north to south and hollow out bays .Seaboard is open except to the North at the island

Hill of Mount Deli (855ft high) a well-known landmark to mariners. From that to Calicut

are low cliffs and long reaches of sands. Beyond Calicut to the south, the shore is a single

long unbroken stretch of sand. The experienced native mariners can tell the distance from

land at any point of the coast by the number of fathoms they find as sounding with the

lead.Laccadive and Minicoy are coral sand islands and limestone formed from it. Their

highest point is not above 30 ft above sea level. The islands are crescent moon shaped with

ample lagoon enclosed by coral reefs. Lagoons with intense bright colors of

cobalt,green,yellow and crimson ,by living corals and fish that dart is radiantly

beautiful. The islands have dense vegetation, coconut trees and breadfruit and lime trees

in cultivated parts but elsewhere it is only jungle and shrubs and few screw pines.

Mountains:

The western ghats or Sahyan 3000-5000 ft above sea level on Coorg and Wynad ,with one

or two peaks above 6000-8000 ft.On the Nilgiri –Kunda face, is over 6000 ft.On South

Nilgiri falls to 4000ft and Vadamalai (north)and Thenmalai (south)on either side of

Palghat gap.Anamalai on south is 4000-5000 ft.

The peaks of western ghat:

Veidal(Vethaala) Mala (in the name of a mighty robber Veda kumar or prince of the

Vedda)with a foundation of his old house, and a history that people by treachery killed

him and his descendents except a woman whose descendents are still traced.(In Logans

time).In April ,May and October thunderstorms of terrific violence happen there.(in

relation to the two monsoons)

Brahmagiri in which Coorg lies.

Banasur/Balasur peak ,Naduvaram peak, with a trigonometric survey station,Tanotemala

overhanging Thamarasery,Elambileri peak,(best coffee producing part of Wynad),vellera

mala (coffee producing),Vavulmala (camel hill)due to resemblance to camel hump.

Nilgiri peak,Mukurti peak,Anginda peak,Karimala,(highest peak in north of

Palghat),kalladikod peak,(the stormiest peak in Malabar with proverb that if

kalladikodan goes black with anger, will not the Karuga river be swollen?

Elimala/Deli mountain. The landmark for mariners for earliest times.VascodaGama ‘s

pilots said the natives call it a mountain of the rat(Eli/Mooshaka).It is pronounced with a

cerebropalatal and becomes Ezhimala the land of the sapthasaila or seven hills ,(The

same as Sapthasaila of Andhraka people .This is an important point I want to stress for

historical reasons.)and has 7 peaks and in Marco Polo’s accounts it is Eli .Ibn Batuta calls

it Hili and as the Eli Kovilakam,the second oldest of the palaces of the ancient line of

Kolathiri princes .(This is important ,since the first line of the Eli ,or Mooshakavansa

were the line living in Perumpadappa and Punnayurkulam and the 5 branches of the

Thalappally kovilakam or Thalapalli Mooshaka vansa , and its branch Eliankattil

kovilakam at that time)

Chekkunnu,Urolmala,Pandalur,Pranakod,Anangamala,and

cannanore,Darmapattanam,mananthody,purakkad ,pukkunnu,kurnad,kurachimala,and

Palghat fort where elevated survey stations exist.

In Logans time Ponnani water communication had become defective and a factory was

not built there. The Chettvai was contended for by the foreigners.Thangassery and

Anjengo were also used by them. Why Ponnani lost its importance after being contested

and won over by the Zamorins from the Kolathiri with help of Kunjali Markkar and his

father? That is a question we will leave behind for now .

The other rivers were Nileswaram,which flows through Canara and Kerla,Elimala

river, the brackish creaks of it being abode of crocodiles (The vehicle of the varuna and of

Vettaikorumakan ,paradevatha of Eliyankad and Kerala kings).A two mile long canal

built by Aliraja (in 1766) husband of Bibi of Kannanore,while managing Kolathiri

domains for Hyder Ali.It links Eli river to backwaters at mouth of Valarpattanam

,Taliparamba rivers and give uninterrupted water transport in all seasons.Taliparamba

river ,bending to north and passing under the guns of a ruined fort of Kolathiri suddenly

turn to old bazaar(Payanghadi)and join Valarpatanam puzha and large fertile garden is

formed by the banks of it. The valarpatanam puzha has its banks the old

Surrukunadapuram(Sreekandapuram)built by Valabha and Sreekanda two brothers of the

Mooshaka dynasty, where an old Muslim mosque exist and its

emporium of trade was from coorg and sandal forests of Nilgiri and mysore.To this place

Ibn batuta traveled from mount Eli in one day by water.Muhammedan settlement is at

Eroocur and trade route to Mysore and coorg is through this village. Up stream at

Iritty,the trade route via Perambadi ghat is a massive bridge .At mouth of

Valarpattanam(Vallabha pattanam)at its mouth is a well-preserved fort on a cliff and

further west in an island in the brackwater is a fort called Madakkara.The valarpattanam

belonged to Kolathiri and Madayikara to the British.(These are ancient sites built by

Vallabha and his brother Sreekanda mentioned in Mooshakavansa kavya .Valabha’s

name is also seen in Mahavansa of Ceylon )Anjarakandi river and the island

Dharmapattanam is connected to Venkat by boat and the company had a pepper trade

outpost there.Tellichery river and Kodoli river ,Mahe river,Kotta river,(the haunt of

pirates called kottkaal Kunjali Marakkar according to Logan)Vadakara canal

partly natural and partly manmade,Payoli canal and Agalapuzha,are

mentioned.Agalapuzha water level does not rise much in floods but that of Kotta rise so

high to threaten the beach and this difference in level necessitates a water-lock at the

entrance of payola canal from kotta river.Elathur river is connected to Kallai river, and

backwaters and to Beypore river by the Connnolly canal.(Completed in 1848 by

Conolly,collector of Malabar)At low tide water is only a few inches. This was built under

special scheme of Mr. Greame (suggested in 1822)for inland water transport from

Travancore upto the north .

Beypore river is the only river in North Malabar which brings considerable water from

the crest of ghat mountains. One branch arise from Kunda mountain in Nilgiri plateau

,and another from south-east wynad.The branch is gold river. And flows south of Karkur

pass, the other the Chaliyar or Chola river, from crest of wynad hills close to a footpath

known as Choladi pass ,meet in midst of Nilambur teak plantations, and reach Beypore to

the Arabian sea. Even in dry season boats can ascend the stream as far as Mambat under

the shadow of the camel hump(vavuli mala) range. Here and in Arikot are Mohammedan

settlers. This and all streams of Malbar were known to be auriferous from earliest times

and in each annual flood the local people try to get gold from its sands.Kadalundi river

from western slopes of Nilgiri and silent valley range and in high tides boats can go upto

Malappuram and even further but in dry season this is not possible.Upto 1857 collectors

tried to make canals to connect it with backwaters and creeks of Ponnani river
.
What was the reason for succeeding in this attempt?

Logon writes:-

A short length below the surface a bed of clay or mud was found which oozed and filled

canal completely to prevent passage of boats. It was of the same nature as found forced

upwards from the bottom of the sea ,by submarine volcanic action, or by subterraneous

pressure of water from the large inland backwaters ,forms mud banks or mud bays in

which at one or two places on the coast ,(notably at Narakkal and Alleppey)ships can ride

in safety and load and discharge cargo throughout the monsoon season. The same

difficulty was noticed in Calicut in making a short canal from kallayi river to the main

bazaar.(This is important because it shows from Calicut to Ponnani is new land reclaimed

form sea, probably by a natural phenomena and from Ponnani /Malappuram /Calicut the

area was once occupied by sea and it is a relatively new addition to the geography of old

Malabar .(The fact that cheru and chali are two terms for mud and these are seen in many

place names of the area and also in Cheranaad/cherikkal is to be noted)

Ponnani river is the longest river of the Malabar proper. The main stream from the arid

plains of Coimbatore (the place where the Cheras themselves ruled)and there are sand

shoals which cause floods during monsoons. The riverside portion of Ponnani town is

always under threat of sea erosion. The town is preserved and protected by Groynes for

the maintenance of which a special voluntary cess is paid by the mercantile

community. It has a navigable creek to Tirur.And to south, connected to backwaters of

Velliyankode and further south boat traffic is possible upto Trivandrum.(200 miles)The

most urgent need is to widen the cut about 2 miles in length ,connecting the Ponnani river

with Velliyamkode backwater. The cut at present is only 15 ft wide and the water is only a

few inches deep in low tide. The veliyamkode backwaters opens to the sea and its opening

is maintained by the force with which the tide ebbs and flows. the Chowghat backwater

and creek is about 15 miles. Two ridges running parallel to coastline seem to shut off

drainage from both west and the east. This hollow is filled with freshwater in the rains and

two rude embankments of wattle and mud are made at the end of the rains to keep in the

fresh and to prevent the salt water influx which would destroy the heavy rice-crops raised

within the enclosure. The passage of boats is maintained by sliding them with extra help

over the obstacles on the unctuous muds of which the embankments are formed. At

the southern end the backwaters join the Chetwai river of 6 miles entirely within British

territory. Two miles of it lie in native Cochin state territory. At the end of the 8 mile long

Chetuvai is a lake that is partly natural and partly artificial. It is the Trichur Enamaakakl

lake. Of 25 sq miles and is a singular effort of human industry against the forces of nature

which the cultivation of its beds demands. From the subsidence of the floods of one year

to the commencement of the following rains, the space of time is barely sufficient for the

garnering of a crop. At the close of the rains the water in the lake ,which is protected from

tidal influences by a masonry dam at Enamakkal,is drained of by ceaseless labor day

and night with Persian wheels aided not infrequently now-a-days by patent pumps driven

by portable steam engines ,whose fires glow weirdly across the waste of waters on dark

nights while the incessant throb and rattle of the engines and machinery strive hard to

dispel any illusions. Every foot of ground that can be thus reclaimed is protected by

fences of wattle and mud and is planted up with well grown rice seedlings. Spaces are left

between the fields ,and into these channels the water drawn from the fields is poured ,so

that boats can be employed for visiting the different fields ,the dry beds of which lie some

3 or 4 ft below the level of the water in the canals. In dry weather the lake presents a

magnificent level green expanse of the most luxurious growing rice ,the pleasant effect to

the eye is heightened by contrast with the snowy plumage of innumerable cranes and

other aquatic birds which here revel in a continual feast.

With the early thunder harbingers of the south west monsoon in April re-commences the

struggle with the slowly but steadily rising floods. Numberless Persian wheels bristle in

their bamboo frameworks for the contests with the threatening floods ,and as the season

advances thousands of the population, many of them good caste Nayar women ,,are

perched high above the scene on those machines continuing the day and night struggle

with the rising floods for the preservation of their ripening crops. The bulwarks of the

fields are frequently breached and the unmatured crop drowned. Often a large area has to

be reaped by simply heading the stalks from boats. But as a rule, an enormously rich crop

rewards this remarkable industry. A small portion only of this lake lies in British

territory. The major portion belongs to the Cochin state ,and as already observed ,a

masonry dam at Enamakkel is necessary to maintain the level of freshwater in the lake

and to keep out saltwater. The original dam seems to be formed sometimes during the 18th

century by the united efforts of the zamorin and the Cochin Rajas. They eructed an

embankment of hewn stone above 200 ft long across the backwater of Enamakkel.In

1802 Asst collector Mr. Drummond ,under the erroneous expectation of benefiting the

neighboring lands ,caused the dam to be partially destroyed.(This year in 2009 ,the

authorities destroyed the bund of Viyyam kaayal for fear of a popular uprise ,the people

taking upper hand in administration to cause destruction of next years prospect of raising

a good crop of paddy which is saddening to note )But the consequence was

that a large area of land fell out of cultivation owing to the influx of salt water. Various

attempts were made especially in 1823 and 1842 to construct the dam on its original

plan. Project for a new dam lower down the dam at Chetwai was proposed and between

1855 and 1858 preparation for constructing this work were undertaken. The idea was

abandoned ,however, after Rs 35000 had been spent on it and since then the original dam

has been annually patched up at the joint cost of British and Cochin Governances. Three

major branches of Kaveri (kabbani,Rampur,and Bavani river )originate in Malabar. The

first two are in Wynad and Bhavani rise from Kunda mountains flow through Attapadi

valley where it is joined by several branches largest called Siruvani or small Bhavani .It

rise on the forest clad mountains of northern edge of Palghat gap .Acquiring a considerable

volume in a short amphitheatre of mountains on the vast crest of the ghats it pours itself

in a magnificent cataract ,said to be 2000 ft high ,over a precipitous ledge of rock which

hems in the Attapadi valley on the south. At the top of the ledge of rock is a deep pool in

the bed of the stream called Muthukkulam which is regarded with superstitious awe with

local people and about which many wonderful stories are told. It is said to be fathomless

and people declare that extraordinary and tremendous noises do at times issue from it

,and roll cracking among the rocks.

About the geology ,Logon says the midrib of south India ,which stretch from low-lying

gap in Palghat ,below the Nilgiris ,to within 15 miles of cape Comorin.The mountain land

does not run down the middle of peninsula but keeps to the westward. So that there is a

broad stretch of low country on the Madura and Tinnevelly side ,while that of Travancore

is narrow. Then the mountains suddenly drop to the east, and send long spurs down to

western coast .In Madura and Tinneveli a southerly prolongation of the wide plain of

Carnatic that stretch round by cape Comorin and join the narrower ,though rather

elevated ,low country of Travancore ,Cochin and Malabar. The narrower ,higher land of

west coast presents traces of a plateau or terraced character (seen best in Malappuram in

Ernad Taluk,and in Chirakkal Taluk north and south of Taliparamba river reaching from

Mount Deli upto Elathur river mouth.Mr King observed the plateaus of Beypore and

Calicut and it is due to denudation of an original planed down terrace of gneiss into

detached plateaus ,the upper surfaces of which are altered and laterized to a certain depth.

FN pp 19 vol 1)which is displayed at Trivandrum and northwards to Cochin into Malabar

country. South of Triivandrum these marks gradually disappear the last trace being at

plateau bordering the seashore at Kolachal.This even surfaced tract of the country is 150-

200 ft above sea level and it touches the shores in cliffs or headlands at two or three

points ,at warkilli,Paupancheri hill southwest of Thiruvananthapuram.

To an observer traveling to Trivandrum across Ariamkow pass from Tinnevelly ,the

change from parallel ridges and broken form of the lower hilly country to comparatively

smooth downs of Trivandrum is striking .Northwards from Trivandrum are the absolutely

lowland on the sea level.(from Quilon to Alleppy,backwaters of Cochin,Trichur

Enamakkel lake, backwaters connected to Veliyamkod,between Kotta and Elathur

rivers,Agalapuzha,backwaters of Thaliparamba and Valarpattanam puzha.)

The rock formation are gneiss series.(one of the oldest known formation of terra

firma.The surface of Wynad in 1882 showed that it was formed and exposed ,after 2000

ft of gneiss was slowly worn away between the Nilgiris ad the Vellaramala for a very long

period of time.)

Quilon beds are of Eocene age.

Warkkili beds of upper tertiary age. equivalent to Cuddalore sandstones of Coromandel.

Warkkili beds are seen in Beypore and Cannanore (a quarter mile from the

sea)Travancore is rich in garnetiferous gneiss.red,blue and yellow sapphire and jacinth

are seen in garnet sands and is common in seashore.Titaniferous iron is seen in

seasand.bright scarlet ,black,purple,yellow and white sands of all these minerals and

ordinary silica is seen in Cape comorin.

Nilgiris has massive grey gneiss with crystallized quartz rock very like reefs of

veinquartz.The beds are felspathic ,feldspar occurring in quartz giving a granite

appearance. In Nell ore similar rocks are found. But it is fine compact quartzite while in

Trivandrum it is not n compact form.Felspathic quartose gneiss is charged with garnets.

Iron is less in the gneiss but abundant iron is seen in weathered gneiss and other

formations. The abundant ferruginous matter must come from the weathering of garnets.

The gneiss lie in 2 to 3 parallel folds of west-north-west and east-south-east. More

towards the north in Cochin territory and Peermad.Between Trivandrum and Tinnevelly

(12-20 miles inland)the dip is high to south-south-west terraced plateau and or among the

parallel dips the first north-north-east dip. Then again a high south-south-west .They are at

synclinal angle at east and anticlinal at west angles. At kurtallum on Tinnevalley side the

rise from synclinal well displayed and in their strike west-north west ward into broad

mountain land ,beds of which take part in great anticlinal displayed at great flat arch of

Peermad strata. This is the south part of Ariankow.

Nature of gneiss of Trivandrum,Cochin and Malabar to easily decompose to white

,yellow or reddish felspathic clayey rock which become laterites.

Laterite contain ferruginous debris. May be marine,fluviatile or sub aerial action and

alteration on gneiss .In Malabar and Simhala it is called Kabuk or kaaavu .The warkkili

bed and rock formation is rich in ferruginous laterite of three types

1.superficial ferruginously cemented debris

2.ferruginous clayey reddish brown colored irregularly vesicular and vermiform

scabrous rockforming uppermost part of werkkili beds

3.altered decomposed gneiss called Kabuk,or lateritized gneiss. This shows original

xalline structure and constitution.

400 ft above sea level the alteration starts. Lower down at 150-200 ft above sea, a better

defined belt of weathered laterised gneiss with frequent unaltered rocks. This is a country

of undulating downs with uniform stretches of forest lands (without thick and lofty

jungle).Occasionally with plateau surface and low flat topped hills. Indented with deep

river valleys and streams and even with backwaters having high and steep shores.

Malabar show the plateau character of lateritic gneiss. It is made of weathered

decomposed gneiss .The sand is red peroxide of iron changing to brown peroxide. The

warkkili beds have argillaceous limestones ,a kind of dolomite ,in which a marine fauna of

univalve shells(Orbolite malabarica) having an ecocene facies was found 40 ft below the

laterite to Quilon which is really the upper part of the next group.

Logon says in Malabar on the western side ,is an old marine terrace ,which must be of

later date than the warkkili beds.(upper tertiary stage as cuddalore sandstone but

sandstone patches are very little and that too towards the southern tip nearer to

Kanyakumari )He calls it late tertiary or post-pleiocene and he thinks at some time in the

past the Indian land raised straight from sea by Western ghats and he thinks of the story

of reclamation of the land of Kerala by Parasurama.A terraced form of marine

denudation of the mountain in very gradual steps with weathering is a possibility.

Recent deposits are only at the coast and alluvial beds of rivers in coastal area.

Natives classification of geological types of soil:-

Pasima:-rich heavy,clayey tenacious soil

Pasimarasi:-the above mixed with sand, and of loamy character

Rasi:-sandy soil.

Each subdivided into 3 so that there are 9 types of soil. This is used for revenue

assessment of rice-lands by natives .The Hindu sasthra says:-one cubic kol or yard of

earth being excavated, soil of the best description (pasima)if put back into the pit thus

excavated ,will suffice more than to fill it. Loamy(pasimarasi)will exactly fill

it. sandy(rasi)will not suffice to fill it.

Rasi soil in coast for coconut farms. subsoil water easy for its roots to reach

Uplands with detrital laterite are gravel quarries and are laterite gneiss.

The most productive grain land is in Wallavanad Taluk where laterite is scarce and where

pasima lands are met with. On mountain slopes where gneiss does not crop up ,an

immense store of rich black mould by decayed vegetable matter.

Climate and natural phenomena in Malabar described by Logan.

Uniform annual mean temperature on sea-coast 81 degree Fahr.Never rise above 90 and

falls below 70.This is not due to great altitude of sun though the altitude of sun is always

great here, and its hours of shining comparatively long throughout the year,maximum of

12 hours 35 mts in latter half of June to minimum of 11 hrs 35 mts in latter half of

December. The reason for heat is the superheated surface soil. The surface radiates the

heat both at day and night and maintains the comparatively high temperature.

Another reason is the water vapour .The Madagascar water current that impinges at little

north of Malabar brings with its atmosphere saturated with moisture.Seabreeze saturated

with water vapour blow steadily for several hours in dry weather. During

June,July,August,the SW Monsoon winds blow night and day off the ocean and rolls up

before it dense masses of vapour.The superheated sand radiates heat and that instead of

radiating to space absorbed by aqueous vapour and acts like a blanket ,preventing earth

from losing heat, at night and greater the heat,greater the capacity of atmosphere to

absorb moisture. A cloudless night in Malabar does not betoken a cool night .

These have its advantages. The ocean never become overheated like the land and ocean

breezes blow throughout year, in particular the south west monsoon wind, are cool

winds. The temperature of atmosphere is low in that time, though the sun at that time

attains its greatest elevation in heavens and for months the clouds shelters earth from

sun’s direct rays.

The dense unbroken clouds in monsoon by condensed water vapour and rains maintains

the uniformity of temperature. To convert water into steam requires large amount of

heat, and the reverse process, condensation of water vapour to rain, necessitates large

liberation of a large store of heat. So on as water is in gas form heat is insensible and on

being liberated it helps to keep up temperature of air .Evaporation from ocean and rivers

play part in reducing temperature on land. Vegetation thrive on such a climate ,and there

is luxuriant grass,shrubs,tree in Malabar .The mountains cools down the winds and in

Palghat gap hot winds pass through it and cause a check in vegetation in dry months. Even

there the balance is maintained with longer sea breezes that keep fresh nights, cool

mornings even in March ,April the hottest months of the year. The tropical nature with lot

of moisture in air is congenial to health of man and animals as it is favorable to

vegetation. All articles are weathered and powdered and lost due to moist

weather.(mildew,rust,etc).There is extreme regularity to the seasons. On 22nd of March at

2 PM the first shower falls. This was known to the locals and Logan saw that it was right

and he knew that it was not a guess .He says that day being vernal equinox and 2 PM

is the hour at which the battle of sea breeze and land wind begins. The first distant rumble

of thunder along ghats is heard at that time. Nature’s pendulum commences to swing back

as sun cross equator into northern hemisphere. Throughout seasons with a regularity to

months and almost to days and hours ,perfectly astonishing to people

(Europeans)accustomed to live in less settled climates.

The rotation of seasons:-To end of March and beginning of April first distant mutterings

of thunder heard among hills. End of May to beginning of June SW monsoons obtain

s mastery, regular rains begin with electric storms of violence. The roar of thunder is

continuous and for minutes together and blaze of many-colored lightening incessant. In

1873 one of such thunder peals lasted for 35 minutes. Once thunderstorms cease the winds

settle, steadily in west, as season progress, it veers a point northward to west. It blows

steadily from southwest. The reason for movement to north is the ocean current which at

this season is from north to south. At end of September SW monsoon dies away ,natures

pendulum swings back, and royal battle between aerial currents again starts. In October

NE monsoon become strong(land wind)and with it rain become less frequent and the

country begins to dry up, and by end of December the dry weather has set in. With vernal

equinox the period of disturbance of sea wind and land wind again sets in.

M’Crindle’s translation of Periplus Maris Erythraei about the SW monsoon and its

importance to navigators:-:The whole round of travel from Kane to Endaimon Arabia

used to be performed in small vessels which kept close to shore and followed its

windings but Hippalos was the pilot who first ,by observing the bearings of the port and

configuration of the sea ,discovered the direct course across the ocean. Whence as ,it

seems ,our own Etesians are blowing ,a periodical wind from ocean likewise blows in the

Indian sea, this wind which is the southwest, is it seems, called in these seas Hippalos (after

the first pilot who first discovered the passage by means of it).From the time of this

discovery, to the present day, the merchants who sail for India either from Kane or as

others do from Aromata,if Limurike be their destination, must often change their track, but

if they are bound for Borugaza or Skythia they are not retarded for more than three

days., after which committing themselves to the monsoon which blows right in the

direction of their course ,they stand far out to the sea, leaving all the gulfs we have

mentioned in the distance.” It is generally accepted that Hippalos was discovered only

in 1st century AD.(See that Hippalos is Greek for horse, or the name for Aswins and this

was discovered by Indians from Vedic times and mentioned in all scriptures and Greeks

knew about it only in 1st century AD).Even after Hippalos in first century AD Gama took

14 centuries to know root of monsoon winds which itself is proof for the fact that the

European sailors of Greece ,Rome etc did not master or know monsoon wind paths at

all. The knowledge was heard knowledge not experienced or mastered one. Because

monsoon is not a feature of Greece or Rome but of Monsoon India .There is no other

reason for this.)

Rain and storms:-Rain and floods are frequent. On 19th and 20th of May 1882 a heavy rain

registered.18-25 inches in 24 hours in Calicut.In 1871 6 inches per day for 6 consecutive

days. But floods do little damage.(Please do note this point .Because now floods cause

damage .The reasons we have to discuss in another chapter.).The rivers have in the

course of ages worn down for themselves deep rain beds ,which contain all ordinary

floods and the common laterite soil of the country is so porous that within half an hour of

the heaviest shower the roads are dried up but for the dripping trees and bushes there will

be little sign to tell that a heavy rain had just ceased.

Of unusual storms there are but few records. The western ghats prevent or disperse any

cyclonic tendency of winds but the squalls during southwest monsoon are terrific in

violence and do damage to ships .The squalls are accompanied by mountainous waves

and winds with these waves smash the strongest cables of the best equipped ships. With

anchors gone ,the ships try to set sail, but after the squalls the wind has a lull, while the sea

run as high as ever. The ship drift slowly into breakers and the most skillful seamen

attempt to beach the ship instead of trying them to take out to sea.

Great storm on 16,17,18th of April 1847 originated in Laccadive islands and damaged

Kavarathi,swept over kalpeni and Androth and Agati was beyond the circle of its

violence. Of 90000 coconut trees in kalpeni and Androth ,the hurricane left only 700 in

Kalpeni and 8000 in Androth.Kalpeni was partially submerged and drinking water in

wells spoilt, and stores of food and houses destroyed. Of 1600 people in Kalpeni ,450

survived but only 300-400 were perished after the storm in a famine, and others had

escaped and left the island or lost in storm.96 males and a few females from Agatti tried

to escape in two boats and perished in storm. The effects of the storm was felt from

Cannanore to Chetwai.

1.Destroyed Caannanore custom house.

2rushed up the kotta river destroyed palliyad dam and cultivation above it over 2 miles

from mouth of the river

3Breached the new work on Connnoly canal at Calicut

4.At Parapanangadi and Thanur private persons suffered from the rise of the sea

5.The wave rushed up the Velliyankod kaayal and destroyed Ayinichira dam and

cultivation above it.

6.The sea forced a new and deep opening into Chowghat back-water and broke with

much strength n the Ennamackal dam(8 miles from river mouth)which however sustained

no injury. But the crops in the bed of the lake were injured by the floods from inland.

Earthquakes are not very frequent and when they occur are not very destructive.

31 st December 1881 7.10 AM. from east to west a tremulous motion at Calicut for a few

Seconds

A similar one in midnight the previous night had a peculiar rumbling noise and of rushing

waters but very faint. This was felt from Malabar coast to African coast and as far north

as Kathmandu in Nepal and south at Andamans.

2 months later 28th Feb 1882.6.16 AM at Calicut as far north as Tellicherry and east to

Nilgiris .A local affair but with a muffled roar approaching,passing and roaring

away.Like a short train passing through a tunnel underneath. The direction was from south

to north.Furniture,windows and roof tiles shook for a second.

1882 October 14th 2 PM .Alathur Palghat Taluk a noise of underground train from east to

west .Tables and boxes rattled and it lasted a second.

The following were reported from Trivandrum:-

Feb 1823

Sep 10 .1841

Nov 20 .1845

March 17.1856

August 11.1856 .Five hrs 51 mts 25 sec AM

August 11.1856.Four hrs 25 mts 10 sec PM

Sept 1.1856.zero hr 15 mts 0 sec PM.

Kedvellam(stinking water):-After rains, sea and backwaters emit a foul smell. Water is

dark porter color or with deposits of lack mud on sand. The fish and aquatic life perish

and there is putrid odour.The cause of the effluvia in hot season is difficult to determine

but Dr Day quoting Bennett say that it arose from presence of innumerable Arum foetidum

as in Ceylon. It was seen in Tellichery where no mud banks exist in 1836.If this is present

people vouchsafe in monsoons, calm harbor of refuge for ships.(due to the calm nature).

Three places where the mud banks and mud bays are seen are Northern Kollam near

Quilandy,Narakkal in Cochin state, and Alleppey in Thiruvananthapuram.Narakkal and

Alleppey mud banks allow safe loading of ships in monsoons. In 1498,Vascoda Gama was

said to be protected by the northern mudbanks.In 1793 thinking that this is true Joint

commissioner of Malabar permitted company ship Morning star to lie there during south

west monsoon season. It was wrecked.

The mud is churned up from bottom and spreads on surface and making a calm

surface.H.Crawford recorded that a subterranean passage of streams communicating with

some of the rivers and backwaters become more active during and after rains, and carry of

the accumulated water and with it vast quantities of mud. The mud banks act as

anchorages to ships. When 700 yards east to Alleppey beach pipes were sunk at depth of

50 ft to 60 ft when the shaft ran down to 80 ft,mud came up just as the same that is seen

in the sea and a cone of mud appear above water with bubbles and throws out immense

mass of soapy and blue mud in the form of boulders with fresh water ,debris of vegetable

matter decayed, and in some instances fresh and green.Mr Crawford’s successor Mr. Rohde

confirmed these observations and notes mud volcanoes bursting up in the sea during

rainy season as if a barrel of oil suddenly started below surface. The mud bank thus

formed is floated away to south by littoral current ,and fresh mud banks made wherever

hydraulic pressure of inland backwater increase sufficiently to overcome subterranean

resistance offered by stratum of fluid mud which exists at the spot described by

Crawford. The mud bank at Alleppey increase and diminish as level of inland water rise

and fall, and this was most observable in rainy season of 1882.(same year as multiple

earthquakes were recorded).

The unctuous,sticky,soft foetid green mud under microscope had minute fragments of

quartz, foraminiferous shells(genus rotalia),and a few fragments of larger

shells,,diatomacoea(species upward of 20 genera),a few spicules of sponges and

corals, very minute, and some amorphous matter which was not destroyed even after

boiling in strong acids .It was tenacious and sticky resistant to pressure like a stiff piece

of jelly. Acting like an immense spring ,it yields to pressure of waves, the water thus

looses its force and become quiescent. The mud expanding is preparation for a fresh

encounter.62 species of 30 genera of cryptogamia and subgroups diatomiae were

recognized in it.The ked vellam(stinking water)and mudbays/mudbanks need not be

connected. Fish can live in mud banks but not in kedvellam.Ked vellam gets its deadly

character to generation from subjacent strata by volcanic heat of poisonous matter or

vapour ,which is absorbed by water,. The mud banks also derive their mud oil from similar

volcanic sources are also replenished by subterranean passages, full of liquid

mud, communicating with sea, on one side and backwaters on the other.

The oil in the Warkilli strata is due to distillation of oil from the ligniferous deposits

,which may be due to moderate heat from a line of volcanic energy lying parallel to west

coast of India..

Fauna and flora :-

Rhodes Morgan (British Ornithologists union)classified it as

1.Littoral zone. sea level to 200 ft.Rainfall 70-133 inches

2.Zone of deciduous forests five miles from base of western ghats in SE portion of range

extending up to elevation of 1500 ft .rainfall 130 inches.

3.Tropical evergreen forest from 500-3500 ft .Rainfall 130-180 inches

4.Evergreen shoal forest from 3500-6000 ft.Rainfall 180-250 inches

5.Scrub shoal forest from 6000 ft upwards. Rainfall 250-300 inches

6.Open grass ,scrub,bamboo,mixed deciduous and evergreen forest(Wynad plateau)from

2000-2500 ft.Rainfall 60-90 inches.

7.Heavy deciduous forests. With teak zone .50 – 80 inches rain.

Logan traveled from Calicut to Mysore frontier and noted each of the fauna and flora .

He started from Elathur beach at foot of ghats near Kuttiadi and noted the following:-

Cocos nucifera

Corypha umbraculifera(giant talipot)

Borassus flabelliformes(palmyra)

Caryota urens(sago palms)

These are near the houses.

Areca catechu(arecanuts) at edges of paddy fields

Mangifera indica(mango tree)

Artocarpus(jackfruit)vateria indica(white dammer)

Poongamia glabra(poonga/ungu)

Ficus indica and religiosa(banyan and peepal)

Poinsiana with gaudy blossoms in house compounds

Lagerstromia reginoe(house compounds/in full bloom at base of ghats)

Cassia fistula(graceful Indian laburnum)

On low laterite hills Anacardium occidentale(cashewnuts)

Casuarinas equistrifolia on hills and there it support shrub by growth of

lantana,eugenias,(Eugenia bractea in Wynad of 30-40 ft height and 2 ft diameter is a

small tree whereas here it is a shrub)two species of Euphorbia(E nivulia, with 20 ft

height)santalum album(sandalwood)occasionally sown by birds from cultivated trees in

the neighbourhood.

Elathur:-

The boat was cut with a single log of Iynee(Artocarpus hirsuita) and a neat semicircular

awning of corypha leaves.Pole is of bamboo.

Banks of Agalapuzha with everlasting coconut fringes.

Jacks,mangoes,talipot and sago palms occasional silk-cotton(Bombax malabaricum)in

each house, groves of trees sacred to snakes (with images of cobra smeared with castor-

oil, red ocher).

The Frangipani(Plumeiria acuminate),hornbills(Hydroscissa coronata) eating golden

fruits of Nux-vomica(strychnos nux-vomica).

Thousands of little red crabs on banks.Cerebera odollum looking like mangoes but

poisonous. In marshes dense growth of Dillivaria(D,illicifolia)which is retreat for

muggers(Crocodilus palustris)lazily enjoying hot sunshine
.
Ottor families(Lutra nair)diving and chasing in play

Kingfishers of four species .Large stork-billed kingfisher(P .gurial),

kingfisher(Ceryle rudis),the brilliant H .smyrnensis,and her smaller cousin Alcedo

bengalensis.

Bee-eaters Merops swinhoii and viridis

Snowey egrets (Bubulcus coromandus)

Various types of fishes and insects which are their prey

Fish like Bombay ducks with long serrated beaks like bill of a snipe and an ancient fish-

like odour.

Payoli loak-A small fee for the tollkeeper.Through a canal reach from Agalapuzha to

Kuttiadi river.

Lates calcarifer (Nair fish)

Then the ghats rise with forest from head to foot.Boatman paid his fee, and on horseback

proceed. Thousand plumigated birds fly from branch to branch and chatter. Ubiquitous

coconut palms on either side. But many forest trees grow in between and luxuriant pepper

vines on each tree.

Lovely Erythrina indica with scarlet flowers specially for this purpose.

Logan see two elephants with abscess in jaws due to carrying logs .

In kuttiadi forest they see logs of ebony(Diaspyros ebenos)Irool(Xylia

dolabriformes)Mutti(Terminalia tomentosa)Poomaraudu(Terminalia paniculata)red

cedar(Acrocarpus fraxinifolius)and white ceder(Cedrela toona).A few yards from the

depot is a punam clearing with tender green of the blades of sprouting grain. The owners

are the Malayar examining his dead falls (the rabbits, porcupines ,small deer, and mouse-

deer called Memimna indica)for which he has kept traps.

Then a dense forest with stems of Cycas circinalis which give nuts. The fruits are as large

as the pigeons eggs ,some green and some golden yellow. The forest has grown denser.

The Schleicheras(S trijuga)are the most magnificent trees Logan has seen. With bunches

of fruits the size of a robins eggs and seed containing oil and even the branches give

oil. This tree resembles an oak .And near palghat the country is covered with them.

Lofty specimens of Hymenodiction excelsum with barks which is bitter. Bignonia and

Alstonia(A .scholaris)belonging to order sapotaceae.Other genera of this useful order

Bassia longifolia common in Palghat is not seen here.

Isonandra wightiania is a little higher up in forest. Below a wooden bridge spanning a

mountain torrent over a bed of gneiss is a pool of water with sapphire blue color and

Barilius bakeri(fish)dart at small flies. A noisy group of Macacus radiatus eats yellow

berries growing on a creeper –enveloped tree that overshadow the pool.

As the ghat is ascended an undergrowth of strobilanthus in flower. Bamboo arundinacea

has seeded and jungle fowls (Gallus sonneratii)are rejoicing. cocks and hens and a black

languor (Presbytis jubatus)with family .As the stream is crossed the gigantic size of trees

surprise Logan. A black dammer(Canarium strictm)with a mass of resin from a cut in its

bark,Isonandra wightiana ,which Logan strike with a shikar knife to see its milk oozing

out and flowing down. This hardens into a gutta-percha which is useful. A little tree

Baccaurea sapida trunk covered with racemes of pinkish red flowers .It has little angular

red fruits .In October when cardamoms ripen ,the size of this fruit will be big ,the size of

a duck and aril inside is sweet sub-acid and pleasant and refreshing tasting like a

mangosteen .Cardomoms(Elletaria cardomomum),and a Laportea crenulata (devils nettle)

overhead with poisonous hairs on leaves ,Mucuna pruriens(cowhage)the pods covered

with stinging hairs and a purple flower with a terrible smell.

Then a coffee estate.The paradise flycatcher(Tchitrea paradise)with its chestnut coloured

spouse which cares its children which are migratory birds.

The purple sunbird (Cynniris lotentia)with quivering wings beating quickly as it drinks

nectar from coffee blossoms. Down the rocky stream is the Malabar blue thrush

(Myiophonus horsfeldii)whistling away. When monsoon come he builds nest in a rocky

cleft near a torrent inaccessible to monkeys and snakes.

Squirrel(Scuirrus tristriatus)a smaller one(S .sublineatus)Malabar

squirrel(S.malabaricus)racing up a giant dammer (Vateria indica).On the tree trunk is a

neat hole chiseled by Pteromys petaurista as a home. He has a parachute wing with

which he sets sail gracefully down the valley.

A small species of squirrel(Sciuropterus fusco capillus)also live in such holes.

Then Logan notices the noble valuable trees and a multitude of them too .A splendid iron

wood tree (Mesua ferrrea),irruppu(Cynometra ramiflora)fine jack(Artocarpus

integrifolia)60 ft to the first branch and over 3 ft in diameter. He notices that it is not a

cultivated tree but a wild tree growth and never touched by man for profit .A splendid

poon spar(Calophyllum augustifolium)and hundreds of such magnificent trees .He calls

them as “Flora sylvatica “due to its beauty and magnificence.

Then they come to the clear clean mountain stream. From there they could see the sea ,the

white sails of fishing craft coming homeward laden with seer-fish and pomfret.From the

base of the hills to the sea is coconut palms.

Then they descend. See the Boehmeria (B.malabarica)that produce splendid fibre.The

string of bow of the Kurichiya is made of it. Logan describes the bravery of a kurichia

uncle who killed a tiger (which killed his nephew)with an arrow that crossed its heart and

bounded across the open country grass hill side to the next shoal.(This is in contrast to the

fancy tales of Jim Corbett who pictures the natives as cowards).The team stayed in Koroth

Bungalow and started early to the Balasur mountains.(The bungalow is at its

base).Crossing coffee and lantana they reach a primeval forest. Ground strewn with

large round prickly fruit (Cullinea excelsa)like green hedgehogs .The spines are 3 inch

long. They fall fast and a tribe of wanderoos(Innus silenus)feed on them .They are the

lion-tailed monkeys.Solanum robustum has leaves 3 ft long and 2 ft broad which is

velvety .They and the stems are armed with spines. The orange fruits are as big as

badminton ball and covered with thick coat of spines. When peeled the fruit look like a

hardboiled egg. They taste nicer than the Brazil cherry(Physalis peruviana).The solanum

of Peru is unarmed without spines. It is grown in botanical garden of Ootacamund.The

lovely Thumbergia has recemes of pendent golden flowers. Another species of it with

streaks of orange-maroon also seen. Usually they flower in cold season, but this one has

glowered out of season ,when Logan saw it.

The gigantic Ficus parasitica with a thousand aerial roots desending to ground thickly

was seen and it was so thick that it was difficult to pass through them. The anastomoses of

main stem and branches had made arches. The smaller roots produce a silky soft fiber

,very strong and Kurichia use them for bows and are known as Colinar.They prefer the

manali naar(Bohemeria)for it .

It was curious that there was little leaf mould on ground .Termites and rare splendid

earth-snakes have done it.The elephant beetle which rolls the elephant dung to pits are in

plenty also in Mysore forests .Inside the dung we can see a yellow egg as big as the end

of our finger which will emerge as larva .It is food for the black sloth bear (Ursus

labiatus).

On the trunk of a dammer tree Logan see a black line of termites reaching to a nest 100 ft

overhead ,60 pounds in weight and as hard as iron. He says 20 species of termites are

there and in Burma is a giant termite half an inch in length .Manis pentadactyla(ant

eater)also was seen. The area is the 3rd zone of tropical evergreen forest. And there on

rocky gneiss a thousand rock-plantains(Musa ornate)seen and wild plantains (M

superba)in clumps in ravines lower down and have golden fruits.Kurichia munches them

and the common fig(Ficus glomerata)that swarm with a multitude of two-tailed

flies.Gamboge tree(Garcinia Morella)wild nutmeg(Myristica laurifolia)M

angustifolia,and a tree with pale green flowers arising directly from

trunk,polyalthia(P.coffeoides)with strong bark is described. Another of the same order

Anonceae with glabrous leaves is Goniothalmus(G .wightii)which is rare in north but

very common in Palghat in Chenat Nair forest.

The dense undergrowth of dwarf screw pine(Pandanus)had to be cut to go forward. And

then strobilanthus paniculatus which has different species and vary with

elevation.Hemileia vastatrix destroying coffee plantations was seen.Dichoceros

cavalus(large noisy hornbills)were having their breeding season and Logan describes

seeing them. Then Logan is shown a vast area of forest destroyed by Mappillas for coffee

plantations. After one hour ascend reach another shoal, entirely different from the one they

just crossed. The trees not so lofty, undergrowth denser, species of strobilanthus different

,birds abundant and bees and insects keep a continuous hum in blossoming trees

overhead. Then they enter the 4th zone or evergreen forest.

A dense growth of dwarf bamboo (Beesha Rheedii)barking deer(Cervulus aureus)a bees

nest(Apis mellifica)lycopodiums and balsams along a brook, on moss-grown rocks. A

funny frog(Hylorana )squatted amongst them and greets them with his music with a

monotonous running up the scale like”Tunc-tuk-tuk-tuk-tuk-tuk”

The kurichia comes with a mass of golden honey comb cut from the hole of a Eugenia

(with divine scent of camellia-like flowers of the oron wood Mesua ferrea)because the

honey mostly come from that flower. They have breakfast for half an hour and see a fussy

spur-foul mother(Pteroperdx spadiceus)with her children They see the signs of a sambar

(Rusa aristotelis)where it has rolled in mud and rubbed the back on rock and sharpened

horns against a Garcinia purpuria.The Kurichia who is the guide collects the fruits of the

tree which is used by people as substitute for tamarind in food.

Eugenia,simplochos and cinnamon are seen with their different species.Cinn.Zeylonica is

the common variety.Euria japonica is like tea shrub and 2 species of tetranthera on which

Atlas larva feeds,Biscoffia Javanica on which A.luna silkworm feeds.Evodia triphylla

with several butterflies(Ppilio paris)around,Hestia jasonia with lacelike wings .Logan

collects three species of beetles ,a handsome green elator,large rose beetle, one of the

cetonidae and a fine specimen of the horned beetle.(Odontolabis burmeisteri).The

kurichia find a 8 inch long scorpion of dark blue color .He tells them the story of a

snake he found here once with brilliant scarlet wattles like that of a cock on his

forehead. Logan assumes that it must be the mountain cobra(Ophiphagos elaps).The

kurichia has once killed an 18 ft long boa with an arrow .The greenish brown viper is

common here ,Logan says. Logan says he was bitten a 100 times by it!

After ½ hour they reach the dwarf shoal forest or 5th region and undergrowth is

denser. They had to cut every yard to make way up. Great stretches of boulders to be

scrambled over and common nettle(Giardinia peterophylla)stings .The dwarf eugenias

and ilex(T.weightiana),scrubby bamboo (Arundinaceae wightiana)only 6-8 ft high are

common .A harsh strobilanthus species difficult to struggle through is seen. Rare laughing

thrush fly from bush to bush(Trochalopcrum jerdoni)and the blue rock thrush

(Petrocyncla cyanea)sits looking at the travelers from boulders above. Other birds in

plenty are securing food and Logan see among these multitudes of species Zosterops

palpebrosus,Hypsipetus nigeriensis,Dendrophila frontalis ,common green

megalaima,swiftlets(Collocalia unicolor)which roost in caves of Brahmagiris and breed

here in seasons .Nilgiri kestrel (Cercheneis tinunculus)eats a mouse on a rock and flies

away with prey as the travelers approach.

Then they reach peak and look round. Away to east they see great pools of Kabbani ,to

right are the peaks of western ghats,and beyond the Nilgiri plateau,with black

storm clouds gathered and vivid streaks of lightening dart forth like tongues of flame

and boom of distant thunder echo from rocky cliffs around. Clouds gather on the left on

Brahmagiri,and Dindamal hills so they hurry to get down by another way, the Terioot face

of the mountain. Reaching the foot, they mount on horses and go to Koroth bungalow in

time for dinner. At midnight the storm bursts and torrential rains come and for an hour

thunder and lightening continuously echo the mountains around. At daybreak they start en

route to Mananthavady 10 miles away. There are a 1000 birds rejoicing the fresh cool

air. The orchid Dendrobium aurum fills air with lovely odour.They collect its golden

flowers and others from many trees. There is a great bed of red wild ginger .Trees are

covered with festoons of Hoya and handsome ferns and fine tree ferns(Alsophila glabra)

is seen. The forest is deciduous with several evergreen trees like Vateria indica,Evolia

triphylla,the shrubby Wendlandia notoniana and Logan collect specimens of Atlas moth

larvae(Attacus atlas).

The forest in that part is ruined by Koomree(Kumari)cultivation of fields of raggi for

years and there is only shrubby vegetation. With trees like Evodias,Lagerstromias,Wodina

wodier ,Bignonias,Careya arborea,and heavy growth of bracken. An old avenue with

vateria indica ,ficus bengalensis ,Artocarpus integrifolia are seeen on either side of road

and between patches of jungle were open grassy downs with cattle and buffaloes grazing

on them. They have wooden bells and the monotonous rattling is not pleasant but curious

for Logan and he is afraid of them .He passes several Mapilla homes on either side with

their small coffee gardens and jack trees and on them discoreas are grown for the

tuberous roots. At MananthawadyLantana is abundant and gives asylum to panthers(Felix

pardus)which prey on village dogs and calfs.At 9 they reach the forest office and the

experimental garden. In that Ceara rubber(Manihot glazovvii)mahogany(Chloryxylon

sweitenia)cocoa(Theobroma cocao)rain tree(Pithecolobium saman)sappan(caesalpinea

sappan)are grown.

The next destination was Imperial forest Reserve at Koodrakote.Logan notes that the

board is nailed on to a young Nauclea species tree with curious flowers like olive-green

badminton plants. A swamp of screw pine (pandanus odorattissimus)and willow(Salix

tetrasperma)is noted. He see a solitary tree with nests of cliff bee (Apis dorsata) .Passing

Oliot police station and reaching village of Sunnuthgoody he see a road to right ,leading

to Mysore.

He find a very valuable forest which belong to 7th zone first class deciduous trees and

teak.6th zone was open grass scrub and bamboo with mixed deciduous and evergreen

forest.Mutty called kurramarudu (T .tomentosa)in plenty and grand logs of it is noted by

him. He says 70-80 ft long straight trees like an arrow, which can fetch good remuneration

to the Govt if sold and considers it as a mine of wealth.(It is here that the entire

programme of seeing the forest is revealed as a survey for commercial generation of

wealth ).His own words:- “But we cant sell it now. …However when a railway affords

cheap carriage and saw mills are at work ,we may hope to make a fair profit out of it

yet”.(This mindset is still in our new Governments ,sad to say.)

The magnificent logs of Pterocarpus marsupium ,the next best timber to teak grew

abundantly .Logan observes the mastery of the Bet Kurumers in sawing, squaring and

marking the logs professionally. He notices the hieroglyphic like signs and says he has no

T-square ,tape,foot-rule,chisel or hammer ,nothing but his axe and yet makes a squared

log measuring with his eye and stamps a seal exactly in middle.(His sign shows the

number of the log, its length, mean quarter girth, total cubical content ,the year in which it

was felled, the site(wynad forest) and the sign that it has been sold.(page 51-52).Even the

initials of purchaser is marked. There is a hole in the corner for the drag-chain to pass

through.

Blackwood(Dalbergia latifolia)for coast market is shipped by purchasers at Tellicherry to

Bombay and Karachi markets .(This was the ancient route by which it reached Indus

valley ).

Close to Begur he see a flame of Poinciana regia in bloom. Logan see 70 logs of teak in a

depot all prepared by Kurumbars for the company to sell and make profit .He see mighty

rosewood(Dalbergia latefolia),wild dogs(cuon rutilans)sambur(rusa aristoletis)spotted

deer(Axis maculates)pig(Sus indica).

Logan writes:-Just look at the magnificent trees here. And no wonder they are so fine ,for

the soil is a deep rich loam, nearly black, and composed entirely of the rich surface –soil

washed down from low hills around the monsoon rains. The rainfall is about 80 inches

here. There stands a magnificent teak surrounded by thousands of Mutty

trees(T.tomentosa)and venghai(Pterocarpus marsupium)and venteak(Lagerstroemia

microcarpa)rosewood(D.latifolia)and just off the road a monstrous fig(Ficus

mysorensis)that was blown down in the fearful monsoon gales of 1882.A famous tree it

was too, known amongst the kurumbas as the great “Goni Barray”.Its branches bore twice

a year a rich crop of wax and honey ,for over a hundred colonies of large bees (Apis

dorsata)have resorted for years to this mighty tree to rear their broods in fancied security
.
The handsome black bird which sings and is tamed by Mohammedans is the

Bheemaraj(Edolius paradiseus)and it has power of mimicry and mew like cat ,cry like

baby, cackle like poultry .It has two elongated tail feathers curled into shape of a racquet at

the end. A male Malabar trogon(Harpactus fasciatus)bronze-winged dove(chalcophaps

indica)flame birds(pericrocotus flameus)orioles(oriolus kundoo)blue bird(Irena

puella)woodpecker(Picus Hodgsoni)50-60 king crows (Dicrurus macrocercus)on a

willow tree ,bee-eaters(Merops viridis and swinhoii)etc.He takes a bath in Kabanipool

and catch some giant carps and mahseer .At sunset watches the imperial pigeons

(Carpophaga insignis)on an ebony(Diospyros embryopteris).A mugger(Crocodilus

palustris )is seen swimming. Seeing the wodagur women coming to fetch water with

shining brass pots poised gracefully on their heads the mugger disappears. A frog crack

from a slimy pool .the hoot of a eagle owl(Bubo nipalensis)echo from behind .

The gaur (Garoeus gaurus)once everywhere in Malabar has been destroyed by Logans

time and he mentions it.The cow-bison are now seen in Brahmagiri and Dindamul ranges

of hills ,in Chedlath and Beni forests and in ghat forests near Peria in Wynad only. Gaur is

seen in low country, slopes of western ghat ,in palghat Chenat Nair forests .Felix tigris is

rare in wynad and panther(F .pardus)is abundant in Mananthoddy and wild pig is

everywhere in the forests. South Indian wild goat(Hermitages hylocreus)was abundant once

from Naduvattom to Valliyar but have become almost extinct by hunting .He then quotes

a lame ibex from Madras journal of literature and science .This speaks of Malayattur

church at Northeast of Alwaye as a very filthy ,little neglected church which is occupied

by the converted herds of ibex .He saw 15 males of ibex there ,and compares them to the

monastic habits of males but is silenced by the fact that the other sex is hiding behind a

bush unseen. Dull as the animals seem they have all cleverness of the priests .(page 60).

The three species of squirrels in Malabar :-Red squirrel Sciurus malabarica, which are

two varieties one with yellow tip of tail ,other with entire black tail, flying squirrel

Pteromys petaurista.

( Here I would like to add a few words as postscript of what is said in Logan. In Indus

valley and Harappan artifacts the clay figurines of South India ---it is ubiquitous all over

north and south India --- is seen and in the south it has a special sacred nature due to the

help it gave to Rama during sethubandhana.Sometimes it is the natural geography and

fauna and flora which leads to mythology and history and therefore ,each and every

citizen of a land should know the land and its features. I have given the excerpts from

Logan here for the sake of its positive lessons.

Love nature as it is. Learn the surroundings and know how to survive even in an adversity

like a floods or a famine. For this children should be taken to see their own land by

teachers and parents and the elders should have enough information themselves. Tourism

will develop only if we love our own country, its nature ,and protect ecology .If the beauty

of the ecological balance is not preserved, and if the people of the land become hungry of

money alone, no tourists will come to such a place .Therefore, at least for your own

survival, discard the nature of exploitation and live in balance with nature ,loving it for

what it is .)

Educational status 1881 census :(Educational department British Govt)
Taluks Under instruction Instructed Illiterate/not stated Total
Chirakkal 9486 17772 245411 272669
Kottayam 5567 12764 147444 165775
Kurumbranaad 7944 20206 232874 261024
Wynad 1370 3853 82868 88091
Calicut 6384 18721 180857 205962
Ernad 5114 14823 276206 296143
Walluvanad 7117 19149 281836 308102
Palghat 11018 25703 305733 342454
Ponnani 12769 27762 352123 392654
Cochin 1799 4046 15515 21360
Islands 246 2377 8178 10801
Total 68814 167176 2129045 2365035

The indigenous school system:- Freely attended by girls.( Note this point. There was no

discrimination for girls in PreBritish,British periods in native schools )

Alphabets,sloka by heart, and singing,amaram,names of all things in heaven and earth and

their identification including Gods,men,animals,birds,and rocks and stones and trees

(which is morphological classification )grammer,Ramayanam,Bhagavatham,Vyakarana

and other sasthra after that. Reciting and singing is a very important part of indigenous

system. For indigenous Brahmins there are three Sanskrit colleges two of which in

Thirunavay in Ponnani Taluk and Pulayi in Kurumbranad Taluk are in Malabar and

Thrissivaperur is in Cochin State. Each presided by a vadhyaan.

Vedic scholars in Nambuthiri families:-
Rik vedists 532 families
Yajur vedists 407 families
Sama vedins 7 families
Families Nambudiri Excluded from reading veda 71 families

Vedic namboothiri settlements
Taluk No:of families Rk Yajur Saama Excluded/uncertain
1 Chirakkal 79 3 76
2.Kottayam 30 4 26
3.Kurumbranad 70 51 19
4.wynad
5.Calicut 152 8 144
6 Ernad 120 10 85 25
7 Walluvanad 277 192 40 2 43
8.Palghat
9.Ponnani 289 264 17 5 3
10 .Cochin
Total 1017 532 407 7 71

The study of different sciences seems to have descended in particular families and

astronomy is particularly given much attention and the knowledge is fairly exact ,Logan

notes. They have a monopoly over learning and it is their knowledge which secured

them such a commanding influence according to Logan.(Please do note this statement of

Logan before saying that before Europeans came the natives knew nothing at all. They

didn’t know English ,one can say .But they knew quite a few things including

educational psychology,sciences,logic etc one has to understand.)

Castes according to Logan:-

He quotes some observations in Madras census 1871 report of Surgeon general Cornish

which is very important for us to understand .The great division of labor into

professional,personal,commercial,agricultural,industrial and non-productive services has

been noted. And rightly observes that the people of India originated from a common

parent stem and due to division of labour,and regional languages were divided into

several tribes and castes. If it were necessary to sum up the law of the country as it stood

before the Mohammedan invasion(1766AD)and British occupation(1792 AD)that word

would undoubtedly be the word custom(not caste),Logan says. In Malayalam it would be

Maryada.margam,aachaaram all signifying established custom .There is no indigenous

word either in Malayalam or in any other Dravidian languages to denote caste.Jathi ,in

Sanskrit is from janma or birth and that law which is natural custom to each birth .(For

example manushyajaathi,mrigajaathi,pakshijaathi etc ).The Tamil and Malayalam word

for it is Peru, as in nir-atti-peru(right from water deed)and is equivalent to janmam.It does

not define caste .Kaaraalar,kaaranmai is a trust and a co-operative duty ,which is

entrusted to certain citizens according to a deed ,and they are supposed to fulfill that duty

in a body politic. The nayars were the protectors of the country ,crystallized readily into

this duty with several branches of them. Their function of supervision(kaanam)remained

unimpaired down to the time of British occupation. Logan observes that due to the

ignorance of the British courts of justice ,the term has quite lost its proper

signification.(pp 111 vol 1)The nayars were also the vellalars (irrigators).They had to

respect the kon,or perumal,and was a protector of the interests of guilds of the nation and

all such rights were given to jews,Christians and later to Islamic people with sanction to

make their own palli (educational and religious center for such guilds ).The system of

sharing has survived in agricultural industry alone at present. Logan notes that it extends

to all classes of community ,no matter how humble they are. Logan feels that question of

caste and occupation has to be addressed together. He says:-It is unfortunate that such an

essentially European classification of occupation has been adopted in the census returns

,for it is only confusing .What ought to have been done was to have adopted the four

great divisions into which the Hindus themselves say they were originally divided:

1.The sacrificers ,men of learning

2.The protectors and governing classes

3.the traders and agriculturists

4 the service classes. To this a fifth is added

5.mechanics and handicrafts men.

6.Those who does not fall into such groups should have been grouped as a miscellaneous

group.
Logan attempted such a classification (see page 114 -115 vol 1)as follows:-

Division 1.The sacrificers (God-compellers)and learned .

Brahmins .Malayali and foreign 47683


Division 2 protectors and governing classes
Maravan (watchers/temple sweeper/musicianTamil 136
Mutratcha (watchers)Tamil 6
Nairs(militia) 321674
Rajputhra 362
Total 322178

Division 3
A.Traders
Balija (telugu) 1466
Komati (tamil) 1096
Shetty(tamil) 20945
Vaniyan and gandlu 42781
Vanniyan(tamil) 1259
Total 67547

B.Agriculturalists.
Agamudayan (tamil) 184
Golla(Idayar)herdsmen 2889
Gouda(herdsmen) 1062
Kurumbar(shepherds, jungle men) 2062
Kuruba golla (herdsmen) 16
Padayachi(tamil) 1008
Reddi(telugu) 119
Chanan,idiga,thiyyan,ilavan(planters) 559,717
Telugalu (vadugar)North countrymen 7811
Vellalan(irrigators) 7525
Yadavulu(telugu) 24
Total 582417
Division 4 service classes
Palli(ploughmen)or pallichaan 40809
Parayan ( labourer/leather worker ) 93612
Ambattan(barber) 8347
Odder(east coast tank diggers) 1682
Upparavan (same) 1
Vannan (washerman) 37556
Total 182,007

Division 5 Mechanics and handicraftsmen
Devangulu(telugu) 10
Kaikalar(weavers) 20465
Kammalar(asari,moosari,karuvan,thattan,kollan) 51553
Kummara(kusava)potter 11770
Madiga (leather worker) 181614
Saleeya(weaver) 21589
Seniyan (Tamil weaver) 486
Total 287487

Division 6 Miscellaneous
Ambalakkaran(Tamil chief of the Kallars) 27
Valayan /besta(fishermen) 16024
Lingadhari 71
Kallan (Tamil .Chora/chola robber in hilly areas ) 47
Shembadavan(fishmonger) 167
Others 162175
Not stated 1441
Total 179952
Grand total 1,669,271

If this was adopted many of the present confusions would have been avoided regarding

the caste system which was created unnecessarily to divide the nation .Page 117 gives a

table of occupation of the census 1881 .It is interesting that the women participation in it

as house wife is only very minimal.(The number of Brahmins and Kshathriya are

minimal .Kottayam and Parappanad are called Porainaat adigal and Logan thinks that it is

because they are foreigners.Actually,Porai means hill ,and they are kings of the hills

(Betta raja or vedda kings )and the Parappanad family provides consorts to all other royal

families of kerala.Thalappalli was part of this but since one of the kakkad kaaranavars

murdered a perumal,according to the wish of the naattukoottam,he was downgraded from

his sooryakshthra/Brahmakshathra status to a Nambidi and after that they ceased to have

intermarriage with Travancore and perumpadappu ,their cousins.The downgrading was

due to the act of dishonest killing (Himsa) and not birth .



Occupation census 1881:-
Occupation Male Female Total
1.professional
Government
Defense
Learning, literature etc
Total
7206
2274
27657

37137
57
-
14588

14645
7263
2274
42245

51782
2 Domestic
Wives
Personal offices
Total
-
5793
5793
866
6001
6867
866
11794
12660
3.Commercial
Money,house,goods,dealings

Carrying goods
Total
16968

32299
49267

2304

2133
4437
19272

34432
53704
4.Agricultural
Occupancy of land and agriculture

Care of animals
Total
346868


13082
359950
228631


3948
232579
575499


17030
592529
5.industrial

Art &mechanics
Textile fabrics, dress
Food ,drinks
Animal substances
Vegetable substances
Mineral substances
Total

19673
30097
72632
705
27830
65708
216645

417
61973
52998
1599
14030
6742
137759

20090
92070
125630
2304
41860
72450
354404
6.indefinite & nonproductive
Labor(specified)
Rank and property(swastham)
No specified occupation
Total


GRAND TOTAL
29066
31

476385
505482


1174274
18081
30

776336
794474


1190761
47147
61

1252721
1299956


2365035

About Nair women Logan says:-Though the law sanctions freedom in relations ,conjugal

fidelity is very general. Nowhere is the marriage tie –albeit informal-more rigidly

observed or respected, nowhere is it more zealously guarded or its neglect more savagely

avenged. Nair women are as chaste and faithful as their neighbors ,just as they are as

modest as their neighbors ,although their national costume does not include some of the

details required by conventional notions of modesty

Land tenures in Malabar:-
The unit is family and not individual. The association of families form a body corporate

like a gramam among Brahmins, a thara among Nairs,the cheri among theeya,and other

foreigners.(It is interesting that Nalapat had the family name Nalapat Cherikkal as they

belonged to the sons and daughters of the perumal in a woman from the northern part of

the country. But we also find the term cheriikal as the people and land belonging to the

side or chery of the king in a particular part like venad,or kochin and also as a group of

people belonging to cheruma/paraya.Thus the term is not restricted to one group)These

guilds of families and groups of families had separate occupations or function to be

performed.The chief agricultural guild were called vellala or those who have ruling right

over water ,canals, rivers and oceans. The nair and theeya were the bulk of the

agricultural population.One had extra function of warrior class and protection and the

other too had the function in some regions as Chekavar.Nayers as keralolpathy says were

the eye, the hand and the order and the duty to preserve dharma was in them. So both

agriculture as well as defense were equally important for them Supervisors or kaanakkar

and kaanam rights were entrusted in them Kaanam is a word from Dravidian kaanuka or

to see. The root of which is eye or kan.they were the overseers and their kaanam rights or

kaanam fields were always in sight of their house or tharavaaad.This was a special right

of the nayar .Kaanam right is not a possession or mortgage but a right of supervision or a

special function for which a special allowance is given to the nayar.Logan quotes a deed

showing that kaanam is under the six hundred(arunoottuvar)and the king and

kaanakkaran is the ruling authority or the paad (like nambuthiripad,bhattathiripad etc)for

ancient land revenue assessment (paattam).(Naalappaatt or pad is a term in relation to

this.While Chulali ,had a more military function,Naalaapaat /nerpaat was given a more

agrarian and supervisory function of all the four sides of the kings territory and was

located at the southern part which is Nalapat cherikkal in Uliyannur grama extending

upto churnikara.) Chulali on the other hand was given charge of the Northern part of

kingdom.(With Purainaattadi/Wynad/Pazhassi area ).

What is the duty of kaanam?The kon and pathi had shares of produce as owners of the

land. The rights of this in 9th century was paattam and this term still survives as Logan

points out. The paattam is a word signifying the pad or authority’s vaaram (share).Logan

quotes the words :- “The anchuvannam and manigramam protect the citizens in every

coming generation ,that in the space within the four gates and on the spot where land for

sale is given in trust the palace having received the kings title ,anjuvannam and

manigramam gets the kings title “(Page 598)Thus the Christians and jews given this right

was associated with the 600 Nayar supervising authorities under the King as the Lord .All

the rights of the Nair was given to the jews and Christians too by the deed. They too

therefore get a pati or the share of the produce from the common fields. It is giving the

land in trust to the proper workers who belonging to a body politic will improve it and

give the produce share to king, enjoying a share themselves and the rest of share for the

society in various proportions as assigned by the law of the country. The nayars had to

supervise that no land falls to disuse and maximum production is achieved and the

product reaches safely to the site where it is sold or bartered by the king etc.In short they

were agriculturers,protectors of treasury and granary and defense force and sons and

citizens of the king and such rights being given to foreigners means they had been trusted

by the king as well as by the nayars .Otherwise it would never have been allowed .The

nayars had to collect the king share or the public land revenue and give it back to the king

and at the same time see to it that the farmers are not put into difficulty in famine or other

natural calamities etc .These functions made them the major administrative and trading

and agrarian guilds with three functions (kshathriya,Vaisya mainly)at hand.Thus,it is seen

that this system of Malabar was prevalent in olden times in entire India and before advent

of Tipusultan there never had been public land revenue in Malabar (Page 599)By 9th

century when perumal rule was dissolved, there never was a superior emperor in Malabar

and the local kings were the Lords to whom the nayars and their corporate capacities of

powers had to rest.

The hereditary nature of a janmam deed is from its neerattipper which Logan thinks is

from peruka or to deliver a baby. But in Dravidian language it means to get or achieve .It

need not always be a child’s birth. It just means origin of something, including a deed .The

deed is made with water showing the power of vellaalar (the one who rules the waters

.The title of sathavahana were samudradhipathi).In 25 deeds from 5th century AD to 13th

century AD Logan see the word neerattiperu for giving a janmam deed. It was done in

Bhagavatham times with Mahabali giving land to Vaamaana and is a very ancient

practice. Logan points out that ,if this custom is that of Vedic Brahmin nambuthiri and the

belief that he came only in 8th century to Malabar does not tally at all. The share went to

all the 600 people and their families and to the king means the co-operative farming on

large lands was being done and it needed lot of knowledge and supervision and

experience and support from all and this was the function done by the guilds .In Malabar

the perumal rule abruptly ended by AD 825.Kochin state ruled by the last perumals heirs

after that continued to get the muppara (3 para per 10 para of produce on wet lands)and

ettukkonnu(one in eight produce in garden land)and this was the original share of the kon

or perumal .This was the only public land revenue that existed in entire India or at least in

the Kerala /South India .In 1766 AD when Mohammadan invasion occurred Logan points

out none of the malayali chieftains were levying regular land revenue .These janmis had a

share of the produce as revenue and it was more or less like a barter between the king and

the people. The janmis transfer had become an ordinary ryot in Travancore on purchasing

the janmam rights of cochin and other rajas .They were strong in their domains than the

Malabar chieftains who had lost strength after the last Perumal rule. In Malabar the janma

was bought and sold even before the Mysorean invasion and the wordings are significant

and Logan says the British missed the significance of wording .The rights of the soil is

given in detail and relinquishes all rights of the seller on it. But these are not mere

physical objects but the authority on the desam,the battle wager, the rank ,and customs

,heaven and earth above it,etc etc ,and the temple ,and a seat of honor in the temple

feasts, management of temple affairs, the temple wetland management ,and labourers,The

tharawad wetlands,gardens,workers,house sites etc .the desam,temple and thara authority

also are conferred .This is not the idea of the western mind at all as Logan points out. The

authority was associated with the duties to be performed to the society as well in the

deeds .Not on soil and produce alone but on protection of the land and its people and in

living co-operatively as a family sharing every thing with them. The sthaanam maanam is

associated with land deed. Logan writes:-European looks at soil and nothing but the soil

,Malayali looks at the people located on the soil .This trust and share is part of the entire

Hindu system and its outcome ,He writes. The essential difference of a Roman dominus

and a Malayali janmi was not perceived by the British ,Logan says. They converted by

civil courts the janmi into a dominus first and the reason for the deplorable condition of

the workers was this .(pp 604)

Another observation of importance is that the Nayar protector guild collected the revenue

for landlord as accountants(kanakkar) as share of produce ,and gave it to

janmi.Sometimes in times of need the Janmi/king/landlord borrow from the guild (in

times of war, famine ,etc )and it is deducted from paattam(padu/varam/share).The interest

or pallisa was at customary rates and balance of produce alone went to janmi.Thus people

as guild had a role in revenue and its payment of share through the guilds .If the

borrowing is too great it will wipe out janmi’s share of produce.(This is how the share of

kings reduced during British rule ).In that case the kaaanakkaran’s interest becomes an

otti .Even after the janmi loss the share of produce he has rights over people, living on his

land, and it was customary to value the remaining right at one half of what was already

advanced to purchase the otti.

The deeds by which transactions were effected (pp 604-608)

1.ottikkum purame ulla kaaanam.Jnami borrow 10% more on sum received for otti right

2.Nirmuthal.Another 10% on money already advanced for otti and ottikkum meleyulla

kaanam.He pledges the right of nir (water)to his creditor

3.janmapanayam.pledge of janmam right. Another further advance made on sums

borrowed and there is one step beyond this and that is conveyance outright of janmam

right.

The janmi first mortgage full value of his own share of produce. But what he pledges is

not the soil, but only his share of the produce ,and after that his other incomes and

emoluments attached to status of janmi .Logan says civil courts set up by British thinking

that the pledge is the soil as in the case of Dominus,completely upset the system of

customary sharing of the produce. What I want to stress is that we are continuing that

process and making life of agriculturist difficult thinking that we are doing the right

thing.

The periodical renewal duties and fees were a source of income for janmi/king. The

succession duties of Purushantharam were like this. This system of succession also was

changed by British civil courts and annexation of kingdoms followed indiscriminately.

There was a system of kulikkanam which Logan calls admirable. Any agricultural

labourer could cultivate the land that was already reclaimed and also constantly reclaim

fresh wastelands for cultivation to increase production. The customary sharing of such

Kulikkanam reclaimed plots was at the end of 12 years from the time the land was taken

up.Upto that time the labourer/cultivator enjoy the full produce. All that he has to pay was

a trifling fee of 2 fanam(panam) about 9 annas for entry into the soil. This was there for

kings also .(not only for laborers).

The longer the janmi and cultivator/saamantha lived ,the succession rate also was only at

very long intervals. And the rate of succession was only 13 %.Logan says (page 607)This

system which is a necessary result of Hindu social organization was evidently conceived

in much wisdom for protecting the interests of the cultivating castes. And he describes

how here again the European view of property laws upset the custom .The system that a

tenant making improvements in soil, holdings had special rights whether a cultivator or a

king is to be noted. A cultivator or king could not be ousted without a decree of thara

/assembly and the people’s guild was controlling this dharma. Thus kaanam and

kulikkanam tenants were practically permanent tenants though the common right of the

land was in the janmi .It was not personal property of janmi ,in short .Thus it was a co-

operative farming system with special laws to protect all and the economy of the nation

as well.

On 5th Feb 1881 Mr. W.Logan was appointed as special commissioner to inquire into land

tenure and rights in Malabar and he visited all Taluks except Wynad and on 18th June

1882 submitted a report. The abstract is given as follows:-

When Mysorean attack of Hyder and Tipu happened there was first disturbance of

customary laws.Tipu assessed with an ordinary Indian land revenue settlement .They

took paaattam (share of the padu or king)as paattam which encroached share of

kanakarar and janmi.But he kept the customary share of cultivator intact. He took as king

or landlord 10 % of pattam on wetlands of Cheranad and 100 % on garden land of entire

south Malabar. They did this to weaken the royalty and their army ,the Nairs.(Till then all

conquerors took whatever is customary for the landlords only).The 10% of revenue at

Cheranad was commuted to Rs 250 per 1000 Macleod seers .In other areas 50% paatam

of wetlands (Kadathanad) commuted to Rs 40 per 1000 Macleod seers. In reality this 10 %

assessment on Cheranad was severe and heavier and when taken in money ,than the 50 %

taken from Kadathanad .The money rates imposed by Mysore sultan and later by British

,caused the following (pp 609-610):-

1.Wet lands 86 % of the paattam

2.Coconut gardens 67 % of paattam

Areca nut gardens 53 %
Jack tree 69%
Total 189
Average for garden 63 %

3.Modan lands about 32 % of gross produce
Punam 42%
Ellu not available

(Special commissioner Graeme found it as wetlands 90 % and garden lands 62 %)

The land revenue was made by Tipu and the lower ranks of the kanikkar or cultivating

farmers who were the only people there since all janmis and Nayar chiefs had fled from

Malabar when they attacked.)

Mr. Farmer described the ancient system as:-From the quantity of seed the produce was

calculated according to the quality of the soil. Of this produce 1/3rd is allowed for the

farmer for his maintenance ,profit.1/3rd for expenses of the Tiyars ,cherumars or

cultivators attached to soil, only 1/3rd went to the janmi.

Produce is net produce and all parties were getting equal share of the produce. In Mr.

Jonathan Duncan’s interview with Mappillas they told him” Since Hyders time the right

of jenmkaars is taken or absorbed by Government. And the Mappilla kanakkarar were

paying nothing to the janmis except what they gave them out of charity.(see page

611).Nothing had been reserved for the janmis in making the Mysorean land revenue

settlement and denied that janmis had right or entitlement to anything.

Logan thinks this is the beginning of the serious misunderstanding of the janmi’s true

position in regard to the land. And this has produced all hardships to people /classes

beneath them. Logan says when all kings/janmis fled with their Nairs to Travancore the

Mappillas got absolute ownership of the land /soil like the European ideas. They advanced
small sums of money and to obtain deeds assigning to them large kaanam rights. Logan

says if janmam meant dominion and if kaanam meant a mere lease for 12 yrs ,they would

not have made such shrewd bargains. The kaanakkarn was the real owner or janmi and the

janmi/landlord/king was namesake and they knew that. But the previous kaanakkarar were

part of a guild, part of a dharmic assembly of protection of the laws of land while these

were not .Thus the system crumbled. The joint commissioners of North Malabar and

South Malabar wrote about the behavior of the already weakened kings and landlords as

avidity to amass wealth ,acted as scourges and plunderers than as protectors of their

respective little states. From 1792-to 1802 the state was in a series of disturbance

,rebellions ,robberies and Mapillas had a conspicuous part in them.(Pazhassi Raja rose to

power at this time. So the reason is obvious ))

In 1803 Major Macleod became the first collector of Malabar He entrusted Mr. Richards

the first judge of Malabar to solve problems. He called all principal janmis of south

Malabar to fix a Govt share for produce. Logan tells us the mistakes of Macleod (pp 535)

including a statement of Mr. Rickards that if the principles of his land revenue is applied

indiscriminately to seed lands in Malabar ,I am confident that agriculture would no longer

be worth pursuing.

His estimate was farmer has to give per coconut tree 48 nuts to Govt,and per arecanut

tree 200 nuts .Graeme made it per coconut tree 24 ½ nuts and per arecanut tree 150 ¾

nuts .In 1802 Oct 11th Edachena Kungan kills a Govt peon who wanted revenue from a

kurichiya and he and Thalkkal Chandu become rebels in the eyes of British Govt (under

PazhassiRaja.)

The net produce was ascertained in the customary method. Then divided as:
Wet lands Garden lands
1/3rd to cultivator 1/3rd cultivator
2/5th to Govt 1/3rd Govt
4/15th to janmi 1/3rd janmi

Miscellaneous lands –Modan,punam,ellu was divided as 3/5th gross produce to

cultivator,1/5th to Govt and 1/5th to janmi.

Even Richards did not realize what net produce really meant according to Logan. Graeme

reported the customary shares of the produce deducted at the time of

harvesting,threshing,and for the carpenter, blacksmith etc all will account for 20 % of

gross produce and after reducing this from gross produce only should be divided as

shown above. This was not known to the Richards commission. The scheme also failed to

provide share for kaanakkaran and they were not consulted at all. He used to get the same

share of 1/3rd but now he was a mere mortgagee ,an investor of his money and he had to

look after his own interests and investments and had no role in the guild or in the dharma

protection etc.(Thus ,when a king call them for war purposes etc they started to go for the

one who gives more benefits.Dharma,trust,honesty,values deteriorated and people as well

as kings changed loyalty and became opportunistic. )The janmi /landlord/petty kings

became fully recognized as the Lord of the soil after the European fashion(Logan pp

614)Kanakkars became least interested in Govt affairs and became interested only in their

own affairs. In 1831-32 prices rose to 15%.Next year another rise of 12%.In 1834-35

price of garden produce increased.1856-57 grain price recovered. from 1852-53 to 56-57

the marked price rise occurred.(The year of the mutiny).The first Mappilla rebellion was

reported in 1852 by special commissioner Strange (pp 615).Till 14th September 1857

thirty-eight of such were reported. This had something to do with the price rise and market

value of grains and garden produce rather than with any protection of laborers rights .

From a brief sketch of Logan’s report on land tenure we have

1.The original Malayali (and hence Indian)system of land tenure as a customary sharing

of the produce ,each customary sharer being permitted the free transfer of his interest in

the land

2.Under British rule one of these customary sharers had been exalted into the position of

a European proprietor holding the plenum dominium as the Romans called it.

3.The other customary co-sharers were pushed to the wall, and do not now receive their

customary shares ,and their right of free transfer of their interests has been virtually

expropriated.

4.The insecurity of the ryots thus occasioned has resulted in fanatical outrages by

Mappilla and in a great increase in crime.




Ponnani Taluk during British Rule (as per Logans Malabar Manual vol 2 .Appendix XX1)

The southernmost Taluk of Malabar ,formerly comprised of Vettathu Naad,Kudanad,and

Chaavakkad which were amalgamated into one in 1861.Boundaries :-In North the Ernad

Taluk,East Walluvanad,and Native state of Cochin. West Arabian sea. The district was not

surveyed when the manual was prepared and exact area not known Approximate area

according to 1881 census was 258154 acres or 404 sq miles. North south length of the

Taluk along the coast is 64 miles and width range from 3 to 20 miles in different parts. In

comparison to neighboring Ernad and walluvanad,it is flat along the coast while inland

low hills with scrub jungles,grass,and flat rice fields interspersed with groves of coconut

,arecanut ,jack and other trees surrounding dwelling places exist. Coastal soil is sandy and
the open seaboard is fringed with groves of coconuts. There is no granite in shores but in

interior formations of gneiss traversed by granite veins prevails which is seen in adjoining

two Taluks mentioned and they were One .

Inland water communications:-A series of lagoons and backwaters lying in zigzag

fashion along coast with a few canals which are manmade affords easy inland water

communication. It extend from Tirur southwards to Ponnani,Chowghat,Cochin and then

to Cochin and Travancore states. The total length of this inland water navigation from

Tirur to Cochin is 93 miles (of which 77 lie in Ponani Taluk).

Tirur –Ponnani section is 16 Miles.Ponnani to Chowghat section is 17 miles.Chowghat to

Cochin section is 60 miles. Common country dug-out boats are used for cargo and

passengers. They are manned by two people and can carry from 5 -20 people. Maximum

charge per mile is only 2 Annas and average speed is 2 ½ miles/hour. Transit is both by

day and night.(This is important).The occasional cabin boat has average speed of 5

miles/hr and charge 3-5 Anna more depending on size of boat. Cabin boats cannot travel in

dry seasons in certain parts. In addition to chain of back waters the Taluk has the Ponnani

river and a few minor streams. Timber from Anamalai and Mannarghat forests is floated

down the river in rainy seasons to local timber merchants depots and to Cochin

Government.

Logan mentions two large and shallow lakes in the Taluk.One is “Viyyathil lake” situated

about 3 miles east of Ponnani,and the other usually known as the Trichur lake is about the

same distance east of Chettuvai,and 8 miles from Chowghat.They are respectively

connected with backwaters communicating with the sea at Veliankod and

Chettuvai.Protected by strong artificial dams from tidal influences the beds of both the

lakes are to a considerable extent cultivated with paddy after the monsoons. The Viyyathil

lake lies entirely in Ponnani Taluk ,while the greater portion of the Trichur lake belongs

to Cochin state. The average extent of such cultivation and the amount of revenue derived

in the former(Viyyathil)are acres 7920 and Rs 10865.From the other, from part belonging

to this Taluk acres 2292 and Rs 2960.

(Note that Viyyathil lake is now misnamed as Biyyam by a mispronunciation of the V

for B .How this occurred is immaterial here. But the fact is that Viyyathil in Tamil has a

meaning which is very important for history. It means the Vaiyyakam or Bhoomi and the

lake of the bhoomi (Vaiyyakam)and its proximity to Bhaaratahpuzha,the only river in

Bhaarathadesa with that name is often overlooked. The other lake is the Enamaakkal lake

).

Climate along coast is temperate throughout year ,and in interior adjoining parts of Ernad

and Walluvanad,it is hot in months of April and May (as in other parts of Tamil

Nadu).Metereology shows rainfall as follows from 1878-85 for eight years ,in inches.

Yr Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Tot
1878 10 10 39 23 32 18 9 5 1 147
1879 2 2 25 17 21 14 6 9 9 5 110
1880 1 9 6 22 26 5 3 5 6 83
1881 3 11 10 15 5 4 10 66
1882 1 15 30 32 9 9 12 8 119
1883 3 2 18 24 25 16 4 9 10 1 112
1884 3 26 20 16 12 8 8 93
1885 3 1 5 37 29 15 4 15 4 3 115
Total 0 0 9 25 85 206 186 212 61 73 6 0 10 840
Average 105

The health of people is good .Water supply also is good especially towards interior parts

but is unsatisfactory in towns of Tanur and Ponnani.Sanitation of towns is looked after by

one sanitary inspector, one maistry,13 sweepers and one scavenger (Thotti)by local funds.

Population:-This Taluk ranks first in population. Total(including floating

population)according to 1881 census :-392654

Males 194150

Females 198504

Hindu 231402 (59%)

Mohammedans 146868(37 %)

Christians 14363(4%)

Other classes 21.

% increase compared with 1871 census:-

4.77 % in Males and 4.78% in Females .

Total increase 4.78%

Average density of population to square mile 972 and in this matter the Taluk ranked

second in the District ,the first being Cochin. Proportion of males to females was in the

ratio of 496.5 to 503.5 in every 1000.

Houses 78148 in number.

70625 occupied. Remaining 7523 unoccupied. Average number of persons per house is 5-

6.

Generally the people are poor. A few rich and a few medium .The occupation according to

1881 census:-

Professional 5750

Domestic 1306

Commercial 8696

Agricultural 88509

Industrial 65652
Indefinite 222741

Total 392654

Imperial license tax collected in 1885-86

Trade dealing, industry No:of persons charged Amount of assessment
Money lending 103 1520
Cloth bazaars 6 90
In paddy 5 90
In coconuts 5 50
In coconut oil 5 50
In rice 2 20
In fish 2 20
In salt 2 20
In tobacco 2 20
In timber 2 20
Boat rent 1 10
Miscellaneous 3 30
Total 138 1940

For administration Taluk was split into 73 Amsams.The revenue work was by an

Adhikari having civil and criminal jurisdiction. The civil power only for suits not

exceeding Rs 20 and criminal to petty cases of assault and theft in respective

amsams.Tahsildar had general revenue charge of the entire Taluk had two Assts

(Deputy Tahsildar)at Vettath Puthiyanghadi and Kuttingal,and Tahsildar’s office was at

Ponnani.The Assts were given charge of 21 and 28 amsams respectively. They exercise

judicial powers in these amsams and Tahsildar on the remaining amsams.The Taluk

formed a separate revenue charge ,designated the southern division under a general duty

Deputy collector with magisterial powers at Ponnani as his HQ.

Agriculture:-Staple produce is coconuts and paddy which is largely cultivated. Extend of

Government and Inam lands n acres given below:-

Type Government Inam
Wet lands
Nanja 71137 3625
Wetlands
Punja 13782 21
Garden lands 57872 1881
Total 142791 5527


The total area of cultivation is 148318 or 232 square miles ,or a little more than 57 % of

total area of the Taluk (taking it as 404 sq miles).The extant under garden land being 40

% of total area under cultivation.

Demand roll of assessment of lands:-

Amount of patta No:of holdings Assessment (Rs.Anna.Pai)
Under Rs 10 31076 82263.8.2
Rs 10-50 5240 107195.10.7
Rs 50-100 684 47105.5.0
Rs 100-250 316 45461.14.2
Rs 250-500 52 16553.14.1
Rs 500 and more 15 12236.2.11
Total 37383 3,10,826.6.11

Revenue for Taluk for 8 Fasli years:-
Yr Land revenue Local fund Village service fund Abkari Stamp Special fund License tax Land reve.miscell.
1288 306549.15.8 40382.5.6 19729.12.9 7540.8.0 59344.0.0 278.5.6 3577.0.0 7926.10.7
1289 308525.5.0 40100.14.3 19470.15.7 7177.4.0 91537.0.0 248.9.6 1250.0.0 2627.5.11
1290 308042.5.0 40016.3.11 40165.15.2 19445.4.2 88868.5.0 232.4.0 1940.0.0 2677.8.8
1291 309254.6.4 40165.15.2 19445.4.2 5513.14.8 86396.7.0 357.14.6 1730.0.0 4184.0.11
1292 309195.11.9 40219.6.8 19459.10.9 7492.0.0 81146.9.0. 300.12.8 1645.0.0 3386.0.2
1293 309240.5.7 40229.1.3 19352.2.10 8900.0.0 86431.3.0 324.13.6 1910.0.0 5204.0.4
1294 310543.3.7 40384.12.8 19466.5.1 8100.0.0 95909.6.0 399.30 1955.0.0 4802.10.7
1295 310816.6.11 40372.1.4 19472.4.11 10350.0.0 102142.0.0 339.4.6 1940.0.0 4532.10.7

From the above ,it is seen that a total of 4018326.21.114 is obtained from land alone(as
Paattam assessement,land revenue and miscellaneous land revenue) from the people of

Ponnani Taluk.(The other taxes and funds are not considered here but they also has

become an increased burden on already burdened .people).

Important towns:-

1Thanniyur (Thanni or Terminalia bellerica a medicinal tree for Thribhala which was

famous ,as shown by Avicenna’s medical text in 8th century AD in Arab countries and

was in great demand along with kadukka and nellikka).This is in Rayiramangalam

Amsam(of Narayanath Branthan ,son of Vararuchi 5th century AD).Keleswaram or

Keralaadheeswaram temple is in this amsa.This is one of the most ancient temples.In

Pariyapuram amsa,nearby is Thrikkayikkat temple of Shiva,Bhagavathy and

Ayyappan.Thrimurthy and Narasimha are painted on srikovil with two sculptures of

Dwarapalaka.This is a small port town.

2.Vettathu puthiyanghadi(the vettathu Rajavansa became extinct in 1793 when its last

Raja died).

Logan says the Jamath mosque there in Thalakkad amsam has brasscovered

Gopuram,and a granite slab on one of the steps of Northern gates bearing an

inscription.(not deciphered).Garudan koil at Vellamassery desam of this amsam and

Thrikkandiyur Shiva temple in nearby Trikandiyur amsam (founder ParasuRama) is

mentioned by Logan.

3.Paronna (Paravanna) former residence of Paravanur Panicker ,a desavali is a village

near sea, in Pachattri Amsam .

4.Kodakkal. due to presence of megalithic umbrella stones there. It is in Tripranghod

amsam 2 miles SE of Vettathu puthiyangadi with a

weaving(Chaaliya)establishment. Important temples like Thripranghot,Hanuman

kavu,Thirunavayi Vishnu ,and Chamravattath Ayyappa are there. The first two in

Thripranghot (Thiru Paravan kot)amsam. Thiru is sri.It is a shiva temple.Srikovil is105 ft

length X 75 ft breadth.The raised stone foundation of a pillar of the building consecrated

to Krishna shows a long inscription.(not deciphered).Sankhaabhishekam is the most dear

offering to Shiva.It gives prolonged life, and is connected to story of

Markandeya.Thirunaavaaya was founded by the nine yogins and is on North bank of

Ponnani river on the road from Vettathu puthiyangadi to Thrithaala.Mahamakha is

conducted there every 12 years.During the 28 days of the festival ,the throne of the king

is declared vacant and selected number of followers of king(Zamorin)and the rival

(original claimant) contestant of throne ,well trained fight .In 1743 the last one of its sort

happened. There is an othanmar madham for teaching theology there. A temple of

Brahma exists nearby which is very rare.(It is important to recognize that Logan though

he is not a Indian or a Hindu did not hesitate to record even the worship ,customs and the

local names and he didn’t think that these religious practices are myths to be discarded

,but as local subaltern(if you want to call it like that)history of a people .)

Near Chamravattom ferry on a small island on way from Tirur to Ponnani is the

Ayyappan Kavu.This is a God with special powers for giving rains.

5.Koottazhi(Kuttayi) is a junction and a bar as the name indicates. The backwaters along

coast of Thirur and Ponnani united here and communicated with sea formerly. hence the

name. In the Mangle Amsam near sea,4 miles to southwest of Thiruranghadi and with

a place called Nechikkat(for jungles of nechhi bushes ,it is a sacred place for

Mohammadans.

6.Ponnani (Ponnanayam)or gold coin .Gold coins circulated here and Arab and Persian

merchants came here before Europeans found sea route via Cape of Good Hope. The

Kudanaad District Magistrate court is here.

The mosque for study of Islamic theology was built there in AD 1510.(by Said –ud –din

Makkadum)and those who get a scholarly knowledge from here are called

Mussaliars.(Because of a Mausauleum/jaarrum there).The Makkadum alone gives that

title.Ponani is a seaport and timber,bamboo,coconuts,coir,local imports of salt and rice

are traded. A mile and half to the town is a sathram or Musafer khana.

½ a mile south to town is Thrikkavu in Pallapram amsam with a historical Gurgha

Bhagavathy temple. Founded by Parasurama,it is in Sukapuram grama ,one of the 64

gramas of Brahmins.Tipu plundered the temple and broke idol to pieces and used srikovil

for his halting place. The former owners took refuge in Travancore,and they came back

after restoration of country. They repaired and installed idol. In 1861 AD Zamorin repaired

the entire temple. Another Vishnu temple is in its vicinity ,the history of which is

interesting, says Logan’s manual. A chetty and a mussalman ,while in a sea storm

,promised to build temple and mosque here ,and they were saved and this temple was

built by the chettyand the jamath mosque by Muslim simultaneously.

7.Edappal ,5 miles east of Ponnani.In the neighboring Vattamkulam amsam is the

Sukapuram temple.Founder is Parasurama and deity is Shiva as

Dakshinamurthy.Registration as a person who performed yaga takes place once in 12 yrs

and it is one of the 64 original grama of Brahmins.Roof is covered with copper (of

srikovil).In Chekkod amsam another temple founded by ParasuRama I Panniyur.Varaha

is the deity. Once some of the ancestors of this Grama put a red hot vessel on head of the

deity and after that they are not allowed to do veda studies. Granite sculptures and

vattezhuthu inscriptions are seen and are not deciphered.

8.Thrithaala:-In Koottaanad amsam.Sathram and a weekly market is there and is on the

way to Palakad.4 miles south of the market is remnants of a old mud fort 200 yard length

and 176 yard width. Considered to be ancient.3 miles to North East of this ruins by side

of road to Shoranur from Padinjaranghadi is a small building called Kattilmaaadam or

kattlalimadam made of granite as a Hindu shrine. It is 10 ft square, same height,round

dome,formed of a single slab.Tradition says some supernatural agency built it. It was

intended as a second story pagoda about 4 miles off in Nethrimangalam amsam of

Walluvanad Taluk on the other side of the river and comparison of the existing shrine at

that pagoda favor this theory.

9Velliyamkallu near Thrithala is sacred for Melathur Akkithiripad performed several

yajna there. The ancestral rite vaavubali is done there.(New Moon in Thulam and

Karkitakam).

10.Chalisseri is on borders of Kappur and Kottachira amsams ,6 miles south of

Thrithala.The place is famous for trade of arecanuts and Christians are more in this area.

11.Veliankod.(In veliyankod amsam)4 miles south of Ponani.The sub registrar office of

Andathode in the adjoining Ayrur amsam is here.

12.Kottappadi.The gate of the fort.It is close to Punnathur Kotta of Punnathur Raja, a

feudatory chieftain of Zamorin.It is 3 miles north east to Koottungal .Inhabited by Syrian

Christians.(with a church).Famous for coconut oil and rearing of country pigs by

Christians. The animals are transported to Nilgiris and distant hills for trade. The chieftains

and the family still live there.

13.koottingal,the Chawakkad deputy Tahsildar HQ is in Palayur amsam by the side of

canal from Ponani to Cochin.,17 miles south from Ponani.Hindus predominate here. There

is a Syro-Roman catholic church at Palayur which is one of the 7 original churches of

Malabar .St Thomas, preached at the place. Near it ,there is a mound strewn with small

debris ,still known as the jews church, which was formerly occupied by a building of

some kind. There are some old carved stones ,including a part of a shivalinga and

vattezhuthu inscriptions ,spoils of a shiva temple in the vicinity. The modern church of

Palayur is under the Patriarch of Babylon.(Says Logans manual .This is very

important. Please note).

In Palayur and adjoining Chowghat amsam are two mosques one a1/4 mile east to

Kuttingal,and the other a mile west of it. There is a jaarram/mausoleum in Palayur (of

Hydros Kutty)of the commissioner appointed by Hyder Ali,to collect revenue.

14.Guruvayur:-Krishna temple formed by Guru and Vayu according to Puraana,.It is 2

miles North of Kuttungal .The most important temple in the district, and held in reverence

by the neighboring native states of Cochin and Travancore.Surrounded by huge laterite

walls and 2 Gopurams one in east and one in west. On western gate is an inscription

showing the gopuram was built in 922 ME by Panikkavittil Ittiraricha Menon

Karyakkar.On eastern gate in granite is a Sanskrit inscription :
-
Bhoopaalairvanajaadyai:kalimalahithairaarjithaan punyalokaan

Aarooda nishprayaasam nijasukrithajithaan divyasopaanamargam

Thumgam hrunethraramyam Gurupavanapuresaagratho gopuraagrya-

Vyajenaadhoksham jaaghroukrithamathirakaroschailaavaaraarnidheesa:

Srikovil and mandapam had brass sheet coverings .Temple flagstaff is 110 ft in height

having bell metal covering throughout ,save about 9 ft from top, which has gold

covering. The shrine wall has paintings of adventures of Vishnu as in Bhagavathapurana.

15.Chittattukara.In Brahmankulam amsam is inhabited by Syrian Christians with a

church of them there, and is 4 miles SE of Kuttungal.Coconut and coconut oils are traded.

16 Enamackal is another village inhabited by Syrian Christians in Venkidangu amsam 8

miles south east of kuttunkal It is 4 miles in SE of chittattukara (Chittattukara and

Brahmamkulam is now called Arthatt ). In Enamackel is an ancient Syrian church were

trade is coconut and coconut oil.

17.Valappad is also a seat of Syrian Christians. In Pallipuram amsam 17 miles Southwest

of Kuttunkal.A mile to the north of it is Thriprayar in Naattika amsam with a temple by

the side of inland water communication to Cochin and belong to Cochin state. The deity is

SriRama.On a granite slab on srikovil is an inscription difficult to decipher. Another

inscription in Malayalam by eastern entrance says:-

Pazhancherry padanaayarum Thrippurayaattadesathum Peringottudesathum

Ariyaponnidesathum Ooraalarum kaaraalarum nettanm kondavarum koodi

irimpaadathiri ….,,,

Which shows involvement of Pazhanchery Chief commander,Thriprayar desam,Peringot

desam and AryaPonnidesa rulers and officials (kaaraals/chieftains)and those who had

nettam(gain/labha /agricultural and trade guild chiefs).

18.edathuruthy.Another Syian Christian settlement 4 miles south of

Valappad.19.Mathilakam (because of the Thrikkanaamathilakam temple)founded

ParsuRama.Dutch destroyed it when they had a settlement in Chetwai.Traces of old

temple are still visible.Another Syrian Christian settlement seen in Paappinivattom

ansam.An ancient church also is there.9 miles south of edathuruthy is a mosque.

Festivals :-
No: Festival No:of days Malayalam
Month English month No:of people attending
1 Guruvayur Ekadasi 3 Vrischika Nov-Dec 5000
2 Guruvayur
Aaraatt 8 Kumbham Feb-March 3000
3 Triprayar
Araatt 8 Meenam Mar-April 2000
4 Thrithala sivarathri 1 Kumbham Feb-March 2500
5 Thrithaala
Aaratt 7 Dhanu Dec-Jan 2000
6 Tripranghot
Sivarathri 1 Kumbham Feb-March 4000
7 Thirunavaya aarratt 1 Medam Apr-May 4000
8 Thirunavaya
karkatavaavu 1 Karkataka Jul-Aug 5000
9 Thirunavaya thula vavu 1 Thulam Oct-Nov 5000
10 Garudan kavu mandalavela 5 sundays 1st Vrischika to 10th Dhanu Nov-Dec 1000 each day
11 Trikkandiyur Thula vavu 1 Thulam Oct-Nov 2000
12 Keraleswaram
Aaraatt 7 Vrischikam Nov-Dec 1000

List of charitable institutions in Ponnani Taluk
Amsam Institution Brahmins+
Traveler(vairagi) fed Private donation
Land/Money Land revenue grant-inam(Govt)
Vettam pallipram Chamravattom
sathram 492+41 714+- 124.11.1
Trikandiyur Vettakorumakan kavu sathra 36000+3600 3100+ 1399.14.2
Trikandiyur Triprankod samooha 10125 2000+ 235.2.1
Rayirimangalam Keraladeeswara sathra 61200+12240 3819+ 2704.13.4
Thalakkad Vellikulankara Ayyappankavu
sathra 5250+750 575+
Pariyapuram Ganapathiyankavu
sathara 1260 55+
Nullasseri Peringhattu oottusathra 4380+1095 60+
Guruvayur Guruvayur sathra 29200+1095
Guruvayur Thamarayur sathara 4380 +300
Vylathur Alakkal barhmarakshas
sathra 3650+720 3270+ 321.0.1
Naattika Triprayar sathra 27375+3650 …+3878
Vadanappalli Panayamkulangara sathram of Ullanat house 7300+3650 5502+-
Vaadanappalli Panayamkulangara sathram of
Manhalavil house 2920+365 1000+-
Kaypamangalam Mallikakkal sathram …+1825 ..-+228
Athavanaad Thirunava sathram 7200+720 …+660
Unmathur Kurumhikavu sathram …. …..
Unmathur Parakulangara sathram 900+60 300+….
Unmathur Kodalil sathram 900 120+1260
Kodanad Thrithaala sathram 9000+1080 ….
Paruthur Chembalanghat
Samooham
Kotikunni sathra 900 300+125 48.10.0
Irumbilium Perashannur sathram 900 ….
Ayirur Kattupinath vettkorumakan sathram 2555+2160 470+225
Iswaramangalam Thirumalasseri kottayil chavatti
sathram …..+1800 ….+1000
Thrikkandiyur Kumaramangalam subramanyakshethra sathra 9150+2440 …+140
Koktanad Asuramahaakaalan sathram 720 …….

A total of 225757 Brahmins and 37291 travellers and vairagins were fed in 25 sathrams

in 20 Amsams of Ponnani .For this total inam money from Govt was only Rs 4834.2.9.

Private donation in land was Rs 21585 and in money was Rs 7516.

The two comparatively less famous places in modern history ,but very famous in

prehistoric,historic sangham period and even during british period as seen above are

1.Alakkal Brahmarakshasan Sathram in Vylathur amsam and 2.the Kattupinath

vettekkorumakan sathram of Ayirur Amsam,both of which are in Punnayurkulam

,Vadakkekad panchayath.

Both under the Branch of Mooshakavansa Eliyankaattil Raja of Thalappalli.

Ayirur is the village of the five.:ay is also a shepherd or yaadava .(Kaattupinath-Behind

the forest or Kaattu is because Eliyankattu kovilakam was behind the Thirutheekkaat

parambu ,where the present Nalapat parambu is ,and it was the place of yagna of

them. The agrasaala was in the parambu of Ambaazhathayil ,seen as Agryath parambu.)

Sathram means a yajna or a sacrifice. And giving food as a yajna was the rule of Chera

kings.

Rayiramangalam Keraladheeswarakshethra tops list ,followed by Trikkandiyur .

Then comes Guruvayur and Thriprayar.

The Athavanad and kodanad Thrithala has next importance.But ,now only the Guruvayur

and Thriprayar have importance and all others have become almost forgotten by people

except a few historians.

Religious institutions which were given inam by Govt are given as Trikkavu temple in

Pallapram(Pallavapuram)amsam Thriprangod and Trikkandiyur temples under Vettathu

Raja and Zamorin after him ,and Guruvayur temple under Thalappalli Raja taken over by

Zamorin.

Nine weekly markets where salted fish ,vegetables and other items were sold are listed .:-

Day Place No:of people attended
Sunday Thrithala 2000
Monday Mathilakam 2000
Tuesday,Wednesday Andathode ,Veliankode 1000
Same Koottinkal 2500
same Valanchery near vadakkumpram 1500
Same Kalpakanchery 1500
Thursday Chalissery 1500
Saturday Valappad 1800
Same Kuttipuram 1500

Trigonometric station is in Kutnad,Kurunghot hill ,one mile south 0f Trithala in N Lat

10.47’32.64 and Long 76.08’36.50.It is in good condition.

Old tombs called Pandukulis in Ponnani Taluk
Nagalasseri 1
Ozhur 1
Klari 2
Vadakkumbram 18
Mullasseri 3
Annakara 1
(Pandukuli is a group of stones.)
Single stones seen in 13 amsams.
Kappur 1
Kumaranelloor 1
Tavanur 4
Alankode 1
Nagalasseri 10
Triprankode 1
Kanmanam 5
Melmuri 10
Olur 1
Klari 6
Ponmundam 1
Kaaattiparuthy 2
Parutur 1

62 Pantukuli and 44 single stones make 106 such stones.And megalithic kodakkal and

stone caves are seen in old Thalappalli Rajavansam areas like cheramangadu etc.

I have given in a nutshell the land tenure ,agicultural and environmental features and

administrative system in Malabar during Logan’s time and before .This will help us

understand our own culture and legacy.Since this is not written by any native

person,there is no need to say that it is a construct of Savarna or Avarna or any religious

communities or agenda of Hindutwa.If there is an agenda,the agenda was that of the

British Collector of the time,who wanted to assess the truthful state of affairs before

committing to any administrative reforms. There may a few people who say that he had

gone wrong in some of his observations.Even if so, that was due to his unfamiliarity of

situation, not due to purposeful twisting of historical facts. And such a commendable

historic record on Malabar and Kerala he produced ,for us to understand the true nature of

affairs at least partially makes Logan immortal in Kerala history.

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